Post-exercise Inflammation Research Articles

Single and consecutive 10-day remote ischemic preconditioning modify physical performance, post-exercise exerkine levels, and inflammation.

Remote ischemic preconditioning (RIPC) is a method of protection against induced ischemia reperfusion injury, and an increasing number of studies showed some of its inconclusive ergogenic effects in sports. RIPC involves short cycles of cuff inflation followed by its deflation which may affect many body systems. While most of the studies focus on single RIPC effects, there is insufficient data regarding training-like repeated RIPC interventions. Thus, in this study, we analyzed the effect of a single- and consecutive 10-day RIPC procedure on a single leg, focusing on the exerkine levels and changes in inflammation markers following the Wingate Anaerobic Test (WAnT). Two single-blinded, sham-controlled protocols were designed to evaluate the 1) single (crossover study) and 2) consecutive 10-day (parallel study) RIPC effects on the WAnT performance and exercise-induced lactate, glucose, exerkine, and inflammation markers (BDNF; IL-6; IL-10; IL-15; LIF; oncostatin M). In each protocol, 37 physically active men (19.98 ± 1.17 years) were randomly assigned into two groups according to a particular study design. An increase in participants' mean (4.81%, p < 0.05) and peak power (6.25%, p < 0.05) during the WAnT was observed only after the consecutive 10-day RIPC. Similarly, a significant 15.5% (p < 0.05) decrease in the IL-6 concentration 120 min after the WAnT was observed only in the consecutive 10-day RIPC protocol, as well as a 12.2% (p < 0.01) increase in oncostatin M 60 min after the WAnT. The results demonstrate the efficacy of the consecutive 10-day RIPC procedure in modulating exercise performance and post-exercise inflammation markers.

Omega-3 Fatty Acid Supplementation on Post-Exercise Inflammation, Muscle Damage, Oxidative Response, and Sports Performance in Physically Healthy Adults-A Systematic Review of Randomized Controlled Trials.

Omega-3 is a family of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), which have been used to treat a wide variety of chronic diseases, due mainly to their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, among others. In this context, omega-3 could be post-exercise recovery agent and sports supplement that could improve performance by preserving and promoting skeletal muscle mass and strength. No conclusive evidence, however, exists about the potential effects of omega-3 on post-exercise biomarkers and sports performance in physically healthy adults. Based on the PRISMA in Exercise, Rehabilitation, Sports Medicine, and Sports Science (PERSiST) guidelines, we systematically reviewed studies indexed in Web of Science, Scopus, and Medline to assess the effects of omega-3 on post-exercise inflammation, muscle damage, oxidant response, and sports performance in physically healthy adults. The search was performed on original articles published in the last 10 years up to 5 May 2024, with a controlled trial design in which omega-3 supplementation was compared with a control group. Among 14,971 records identified in the search, 13 studies met the selection criteria. The duration of the interventions ranged from 1 day to 26 weeks of supplementation and the doses used were heterogeneous. Creatine kinase (CK) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) were significantly higher (p < 0.05) in the control group in 3 of the 4 studies where these markers were analyzed. C-reactive protein (CRP) was significantly higher (p < 0.05) in the control group of 2 of the 13 studies where this marker was analyzed. The delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) gave mixed results. Interleukin 6 (IL-6) showed improvements with supplementation, but tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) displayed no differences. The consumption of n-3 PUFAs improved some indicators of oxidative stress such as reduced glutathione (GSH)/oxidized glutathione (GSSG) ratio. Additional evidence is needed to establish clear recommendations regarding the dose and length of n-3 PUFA supplements. These may benefit the post-exercise inflammatory response, mitigate muscle damage, and decrease oxidative stress caused by exercise. However, studies did not evaluate omega-3 status at baseline or following supplementation and therefore the observations must be treated with caution.

Beet supplementation mitigates post-exercise inflammation.

This study investigated the efficacy of a mixed beet-based supplement (BEET) versus placebo (PL) in countering inflammation during recovery from 2.25 h of intensive cycling in 20 male and female cyclists. A multi-omics approach was used that included untargeted proteomics and a targeted oxylipin panel. A randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind, crossover design was used with two 2-week supplementation periods and a 2-week washout period. Supplementation periods were followed by a 2.25 h cycling bout at close to 70%VO2max. The BEET supplement provided 212 mg of nitrates per day, 200 mg caffeine from green tea extract, 44 mg vitamin C from Camu Camu berry, B-vitamins from quinoa sprouts (40% Daily Value for thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, and vitamin B6), and 2.5 g of a mushroom blend containing Cordyceps sinensis and Inonotus obliquus. Six blood samples were collected before and after supplementation (overnight fasted state), immediately post-exercise, and at 1.5 h-, 3 h-, and 24 h-post-exercise. The 2.25 h cycling bout increased plasma levels of 41 of 67 oxylipins detected. BEET supplementation significantly increased plasma nitrate (NO3 -) and nitrite (NO2 -) (sum, NO3 - + NO2 -) concentrations (interaction effect, p < 0.001) and two anti-inflammatory oxylipins [18-hydroxyeicosapentaenoic acid (18-HEPE) and 4-hydroxy-docosahexanoic acid (4-HDoHE)]. The untargeted proteomics analysis identified 616 proteins (458 across all times points), and 2-way ANOVA revealed a cluster of 45 proteins that were decreased and a cluster of 21 that were increased in the BEET versus PL trials. Functional enrichment supported significant BEET-related reductions in inflammation-related proteins including several proteins related to complement activation, the acute phase response, and immune cell adhesion, migration, and differentiation. Intake of a BEET-based supplement during a 2-week period was linked to higher plasma levels of NO3 - + NO2 -, elevated post-exercise levels of two anti-inflammatory oxylipins, and a significant decrease in a cluster of proteins involved in complement activation and inflammation. These data support that 2-weeks intake of nitrate from a mixed beet-based supplement moderated protein biomarkers of exercise-induced inflammation in athletes.

Oral probiotic administration attenuates postexercise inflammation in horses.

Probiotics are commonly incorporated into equine diets to impart health and performance benefits; however, peer-reviewed evidence supporting their efficacy in horses is limited. Interestingly, bacteria from the Bacillus genus are gaining interest for their unique ability to impact metabolic, immune, and inflammatory pathways. The objective of this trial was to evaluate a selection of Bacilli for their role in altering the inflammatory response in horses to exercise. Eighteen horses were utilized in a randomized cross-over trial. Horses were randomly assigned to one of 6 starting treatments including a negative and positive control, and groups that received one of 4 probiotics (Bacillus coagulans GBI-30, 6086, Bacillus subtilis-1, Bacillus subtilis-2, or Bacillus amyloliquefaciens) top dressed to their daily ration at a rate of 8 billion CFU/d mixed into dried whey powder. All horses received a similar base diet of grass hay offered at 2.0% of bodyweight daily along with 4.54kg of a commercially available textured horse feed. Each 3-wk phase of the trial consisted of a 2-wk dietary acclimation followed by a 1-wk exercise challenge and sample collection. Between phases, horses were offered only their base diet. On the day of exercise, horses were offered their 0700ration and then subjected to a 2-h standardized exercise test. Blood samples were obtained prior to starting exercise and then again at 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 24, 48, and 72-h postexercise. Horses in the positive control group were administered 0.23mg/kg BW flunixin meglumine immediately following the 0-h sampling. Samples were analyzed for serum amyloid A (SAA), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) concentrations. Data were evaluated via ANOVA using the MIXED procedure in SAS 9.4. Exercise-induced inflammation as evidenced by SAA, IL-6, and PGE2 increases postexercise. Horses consuming B. coagulans GBI-30, 6086 had reduced production of SAA, IL-6, and PGE2 compared to all other probiotic-fed groups and the negative control (P < 0.001). The positive control successfully ameliorated the postexercise inflammatory response. These data highlight the potential for B. coagulans GBI-30, 6086 to be incorporated into equine rations as a method to support optimal response to exercise or other inflammation-inducing challenges. Additional research is ongoing to elucidate the methodology by which these results occur.

Almond intake alters the acute plasma dihydroxy-octadecenoic acid (DiHOME) response to eccentric exercise.

This investigation determined if 4-weeks ingestion of nutrient-dense almonds mitigated post-exercise inflammation and muscle soreness and damage. An acute 90-min of eccentric exercise (90-EE) was used to induce muscle damage in 64 non-obese adults not engaging in regular resistance training (ages 30-65 years, BMI < 30 kg/m2). Using a parallel group design, participants were randomized to almond (AL) (57 g/d) or cereal bar (CB) (calorie matched) treatment groups for a 4-week period prior to the 90-EE (17 exercises). Blood and 24-h urine samples were collected before and after supplementation, with additional blood samples collected immediately post-90-EE, and then daily during 4 additional days of recovery. Changes in plasma oxylipins, urinary gut-derived phenolics, plasma cytokines, muscle damage biomarkers, mood states, and exercise performance were assessed. The 90-EE protocol induced significant muscle damage, delayed onset of muscle soreness (DOMS), inflammation, reduced strength and power performance, and mood disturbance. Interaction effects (2 group × 7 time points) supported that AL vs. CB was associated with reduced post-exercise fatigue and tension (p = 0.051, 0.033, respectively) and higher levels of leg-back strength (p = 0.029). No group differences were found for post-90-EE increases in DOMS and six cytokines. AL was associated with lower levels of serum creatine kinase immediately- and 1-day post-exercise (p = 0.034 and 0.013, respectively). The 90-EE bout increased plasma levels immediately post-exercise for 13 oxylipins. Interaction effects revealed significantly higher levels for AL vs. CB for 12,13-DiHOME (p < 0.001) and lower levels for 9,10-DiHOME (p < 0.001). Urine levels increased in AL vs. CB for seven gut-derived phenolics including 5-(3',4'-dihydroxyphenyl)-γ-valerolactone that was inversely related to changes in plasma 9,10-DiHOME (r = -0.029, p = 0.021). These data support some positive effects of almond intake in improving mood state, retaining strength, decreasing muscle damage, increasing the generation of gut-derived phenolic metabolites, and altering the plasma oxylipin DiHOME response to unaccustomed eccentric exercise in untrained adults. The elevated post-exercise plasma levels of 12,13-DiHOME with almond intake support positive metabolic outcomes for adults engaging in unaccustomed eccentric exercise bouts.

Effects of Crude Rice Bran Oil and a Flaxseed Oil Blend in Young Horses Engaged in a Training Program.

Rice bran oil and flaxseed oil contain omega-3 fatty acids with the potential to reduce post-exercise inflammation and muscle damage. This study measures plasma interleukin-1β and creatine kinase and fatty acid profiles in lightly worked, young horses (Equus caballus) undergoing an exercise test after 60 days (d) of oil consumption, where the oil replaced 25% of concentrate calories. Treatments consisted of CON (no oil), FLAX (flaxseed oil blend), and RICE (crude rice bran oil). Blood was collected pre-exercise, and again at 1 min, 30 min, 24 h, 48 h, and 72 h post-IET. Data were analyzed by repeated measures ANOVA. Plasma creatine kinase activity was not different in CON during the study, greater (p &lt; 0.05) in RICE from pre-exercise to 30 min post-exercise across all exercise tests, and lesser (p &lt; 0.05) in FLAX at 30 min post-exercise on d 30 compared to d 0. Plasma interleukin-1β was greater (p &lt; 0.01) in CON on d 60, but no differences were observed in FLAX and RICE throughout the study. Plasma alpha-linolenic and linoleic acids were greatest (p &lt; 0.05) in FLAX after 30 d of inclusion, while CON horses had greater (p &lt; 0.05) EPA across all exercise tests and DHA after 60 d. These results indicate that 60 d of inclusion of crude rice bran oil or a flaxseed oil blend may benefit lightly worked, young horses by reducing training-program-related increases in interleukin-1β, while a flaxseed oil blend may reduce exercise-induced increases in creatine kinase. Additionally, the flaxseed oil blend has the potential to increase plasma omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids. Replacing 25% of concentrate calories with flaxseed or rice bran oil has potential benefits for young horses in training.

The Acute Effects of Milk Consumption on Systemic Inflammation after Combined Resistance and Plyometric Exercise in Young Adult Females.

High-intensity/impact exercise elicits a transient increase in inflammatory biomarkers. Consuming nutrient-dense wholefoods, like milk, following exercise may modulate post-exercise inflammation and aid recovery. We examined the effect of post-exercise skim milk consumption (versus an isoenergetic, isovolumetric carbohydrate [CHO] drink) on acute exercise-induced inflammation in untrained females. Using a randomized crossover design, 13 healthy females (age = 20 ± 2.3 y; BMI = 21.0 ± 1.1 kg/m2) completed two bouts of combined resistance/plyometric exercise followed by either skim milk (MILK) or CHO at 5-min and 1 h post-exercise. Serum interleukin [IL]-1β, IL-6, IL-10, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) concentrations were measured at pre-exercise, 15-min, 75-min, 24 h, and 48 h post-exercise. IL-6 increased 15-min post-exercise vs. all other timepoints (time effect, p = 0.017). Between 24 and 48 h, IL-10 decreased and increased in the MILK and CHO conditions, respectively (interaction, p = 0.018). There were no significant effects for IL-1β or TNF-α. Relative concentrations of IL-1β (p = 0.049) and IL-10 (p = 0.028) at 48 h post-exercise were lower in MILK vs. CHO. Milk post-exercise did not influence the absolute concentration of pro-inflammatory cytokines; however, there were divergent responses for the anti-inflammatory cytokine, IL-10, and milk reduced the relative inflammatory response at 48 h (vs. CHO) for IL-1β and IL-10. This demonstrates the potential for milk to modulate inflammation post-exercise in this sample.

The Acute Effects of a Maple Water Drink on Exercise Responses, Oxidative Stress and Inflammation in Overweight College Males

The purpose of this study was to examine the acute effect of maple water on exercise responses and biomarkers of post-exercise inflammation and muscle damage in an overweight male college population. The initial study used a single blind, pre/post exercise design, where the participants (N=10) consumed maple water or placebo (355ml/12 fluid oz) prior to an incremental treadmill running protocol to exhaustion and returned one week later to consume the opposite treatment and repeated the maximal bout of exercise. During each exercise bout, finger-stick measures of blood glucose were taken, along with venipuncture measures for inflammatory markers, oxidative stress and muscle damage. Analysis of the data revealed a significant decrease in 2 anti-inflammatory markers IL-4 (p<0.001) and IL-10 (p=0.026), a significant decrease in 1 pro-inflammatory marker IL-12 (p=0.022), and a significant increase in oxygen consumption during exercise (p=0.045). Early outcomes indicate maple water has positive benefits for those that exercise in the areas of cardiovascular fitness and post exercise inflammation.

Exercise and Heat Stress: Inflammation and the Iron Regulatory Response.

This study determined the impact of heat stress on postexercise inflammation and hepcidin levels. Twelve moderately trained males completed three, 60-min treadmill running sessions under different conditions: (a)COOL, 18 °C with speed maintained at 80% maximum heart rate; (b)HOTHR, 35 °C with speed maintained at 80% maximum heart rate; and (c)HOTPACE, 35 °C completed at the average running speed from the COOL trial. Venous blood samples were collected pre-, post-, and 3-hr postexercise and analyzed for serum ferritin, interleukin-6 (IL-6), and hepcidin concentrations. Average HR was highest during HOTPACE compared with HOTHR and COOL (p < .001). Running speed was slowest in HOTHR compared with COOL and HOTPACE (p < .001). The postexercise increase in IL-6 was greatest during HOTPACE (295%; p = .003). No differences in the IL-6 response immediately postexercise between COOL (115%) and HOTHR (116%) were evident (p = .992). No differences in hepcidin concentrations between the three trials were evident at 3hr postexercise (p = .407). Findings from this study suggest the IL-6 response to exercise is greatest in hot compared with cool conditions when the absolute running speed was matched. No differences in IL-6 between hot and cool conditions were evident when HR was matched, suggesting the increased physiological strain induced from training at higher intensities in hot environments, rather than the heat per se, is likely responsible for this elevated response. Environmental temperature had no impact on hepcidin levels, indicating that exercising in hot conditions is unlikely to further impact transient alterations in iron regulation, beyond that expected in temperate conditions.

Circulating Inflammatory And Oxidative Stress Responses To Steady-state Moderate-intensity And High-intensity Interval Exercise In Mid-spectrum Chronic Kidney Disease

Inflammation and oxidative stress can be potent modulators of vascular function. These factors may transiently respond to moderate-intensity steady state exercise (SSE) in a manner that improves post-exercise vascular function in healthy adults. Whether exercise imparts similar effects in adults with Stage 3 or 4 chronic kidney disease (CKD) remains understudied. Moreover, a comparison of SSE and high-intensity interval exercise (HIIE) may add to clinically-relevant findings for improving vascular function in mid-spectrum CKD. PURPOSE: To determine the influence of SSE and a comparable amount of HIIE on post-exercise inflammation and oxidative stress in patients diagnosed with secondary Stage 3 or 4 CKD. METHODS: Twenty participants (n = 6 men; n = 14 women; age 62.0 + 9.9 yr; weight 80.9 + 16.2 kg; body fat 37.3 + 8.5% of weight; VO2max 19.4 + 4.7 ml/kg/min) completed 30 min of SSE at 65% VO2reserve or HIIE by treadmill walking (90% and 20% of VO2reserve in 3:2 min ratio) in a randomized crossover design. Both exercise conditions averaged ~ 65% VO2reserve. Blood samples were obtained by the same technician under standardized conditions just before, 1hr and 24hrs after exercise. Total antioxidant capacity (TAC), paraoxonase1 (PON1), asymmetric dimethylarginine (ADMA), 3nitrotyrosine (3NT) and interleukin-6 (IL6) responses were analyzed using 2 (condition) by 3 (sample point) repeated measures ANOVAs. RESULTS: Relative to pre-exercise measures: TAC increased by 4.3% 24hr after exercise (p = 0.012). PON1 was maintained 1hr and elevated by 6.1% 24hr after SSE, but not HIIE (p = 0.035). When corrected for plasma volume shifts, ADMA increased 30 ng/ml at 1hr but was 58 ng/ml lower 24hrs after exercise (p = 0.0006). 3NT and IL6 remained stable in the hours after exercise (p > 0.05). CONCLUSION: Modest inflammatory and oxidative stress marker responses to either SSE and HIIE may contribute to improved vascular function in mid-spectrum CKD.

Effects of whole-body vibration on lameness, stride length, cortisol, and heart rate in healthy horses

Exercise stimulates the release of inflammatory cytokines and supplementation with n-3 fatty acids reduces inflammation. The effects of different doses of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) on inflammation in polo horses submitted to field lactate threshold tests (LT) were analyzed. We hypothesized that higher doses of DHA would reduce postexercise inflammation. Twenty polo horses were assigned to different treatments: control group fed (n = 5) grain and hay, 3 treatment groups (n = 5) fed 10, 20, or 50 g/day of DHA with grain and free choice hay during 60 days. Horses underwent LT tests before start, 30, and 60 days of supplementation. Blood samples were taken at rest for blood cytokine expression (CEx), plasma cytokine enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (CEL), fatty acid, vitamin E, and creatine kinase (CK) analysis, after LT for CEx analysis (interferon gamma, tumor necrosis factor alpha [TNF-α], interleukin-1 [IL-1], interleukin-6 [IL-6], interleukin-10 [IL-10]), CEL, and CK analysis. Effects of treatment, time, and exercise were analyzed by analysis of variance, significant results compared by least square means analysis, and significance set at P < .05. There was a dose-dependent increase in plasma DHA, and highest arachidonic acid was found in 20 and 50 g. Vitamin E was lowest in 20 and 50 g. LT did not change IL-6, downregulated IL-1 and TNF-α, upregulated IL-10, and interferon gamma. The 10 g led to postexercise downregulation of interferon gamma and IL-10 CEx compared to other treatments. A lack of antioxidants in the supplements may have led to the absence of treatment effects in the 20 and 50 g. 10 g DHA helped moderate postexercise inflammation.

A Double-Blind, Cross-Over Study to Examine the Effects of Maritime Pine Extract on Exercise Performance and Postexercise Inflammation, Oxidative Stress, Muscle Soreness, and Damage

The purpose of the present study was to examine whether 14 days of supplementation with maritime pine extract leading up to and following an exercise test would increase performance and reduce biomarkers associated with muscle damage, inflammation, and oxidative stress. The study used a double-blind, placebo-controlled, cross-over design. Twenty apparently healthy young male participants ingested either 800 mg pine bark extract or placebo for 14 days prior to the first exercise trial and for 2 days postexercise. On the exercise day, participants submitted a pre-exercise blood sample then completed a VO2 peak test until volitional failure. A postexercise blood sample was collected 1 hour after completion of exercise. Participants returned at 24 and 48 hours after the exercise testing for measures of muscle pain in the lower body using an algometer. Participants then had a 7-day washout period before beginning to cross over to the alternate treatment. Analysis via ordinal regression demonstrated a significant difference in oxidative stress in the maritime pine extract group compared to placebo (ChiSq = 2.63; p = 0.045). Maritime pine extract was effective at affording protection from oxidative stress postexercise. Further work should be undertaken to evaluate the findings with other exercise modes or in participants with known metabolic syndrome.

The Effects of Various Levels of Docosahexaenoic Acid on Inflammatory Markers in Conditioned Horses During Lactate Threshold Tests

Exercise stimulates the release of inflammatory cytokines and supplementation with n-3 fatty acids reduces inflammation. The effects of different doses of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) on inflammation in polo horses submitted to field lactate threshold tests (LT) were analyzed. We hypothesized that higher doses of DHA would reduce postexercise inflammation. Twenty polo horses were assigned to different treatments: control group fed (n = 5) grain and hay, 3 treatment groups (n = 5) fed 10, 20, or 50 g/day of DHA with grain and free choice hay during 60 days. Horses underwent LT tests before start, 30, and 60 days of supplementation. Blood samples were taken at rest for blood cytokine expression (CEx), plasma cytokine enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (CEL), fatty acid, vitamin E, and creatine kinase (CK) analysis, after LT for CEx analysis (interferon gamma, tumor necrosis factor alpha [TNF-α], interleukin-1 [IL-1], interleukin-6 [IL-6], interleukin-10 [IL-10]), CEL, and CK analysis. Effects of treatment, time, and exercise were analyzed by analysis of variance, significant results compared by least square means analysis, and significance set at P < .05. There was a dose-dependent increase in plasma DHA, and highest arachidonic acid was found in 20 and 50 g. Vitamin E was lowest in 20 and 50 g. LT did not change IL-6, downregulated IL-1 and TNF-α, upregulated IL-10, and interferon gamma. The 10 g led to postexercise downregulation of interferon gamma and IL-10 CEx compared to other treatments. A lack of antioxidants in the supplements may have led to the absence of treatment effects in the 20 and 50 g. 10 g DHA helped moderate postexercise inflammation.

Effect Of Cold Water Immersion On Skin Temperature

Cold water immersion (CWI) is a recovery method in sports, acting through a reduction in body temperature and improved muscular function by limiting post-exercise inflammation. Infrared Thermography (IRT) is a non-invasive technique to measure skin temperature, and has been used in the diagnosis of hyperthermic muscles, such as occurs with delayed onset muscular soreness. To our knowledge, there are no studies using IRT to analyze the skin temperature in the recovery process following fatiguing exercise. PURPOSE: To compare the effect of two CWI protocols as a recovery treatment on skin temperature. METHODS: 40 healthy male subjects (age 21.8 ± 2.76 yrs, body mass 73.15 ± 8.15 kg, height 176.6 ± 5.3 cm, and body fat 13.5 ± 3.4%). Subjects went through a fatiguing protocol: 8 sets/30 secs countermovement jumps with 90 second pauses between series. Subjects were randomized in three conditions: control group (CG) (passive recovery, 12 min sitting in a 23 °C room); continuous CWI (CnCWI) (12 min in water at 12 ± 0.4 °C); and intermittent CWI (InCWI) (2 min CWI at 12 ± 0.4 °C, 1 min in a controlled environment at 23°C, until the 12 min of CWI were completed). Maximal lower limb skin temperature (MST) was measured at pre, post24 and post48 hours via IRT camera (FLIR T450). Repeated measures ANOVA were used. Significance was set at p< 0.05. RESULTS: No between group interaction effects were found in the dominant limb in the frontal plane (F(4,74)= 0.89, p= 0.47): post24 (CG: 33.5±1.1°C vs. CnCWI: 33.4±1.4°C, InCWI: 33.7±0.8°C); post48 (CG: 34.2±0.9°C vs. CnCWI: 33.9±0.8°C, InCWI: 33.6±0.8°C), or in the posterior plane (F(4,74)= 0.54, p= 0.70): post24 (CG: 33.3±1.2°C vs. CnCWI: 33.3±0.7°C, InCWI: 33.5±0.9°C); post48 (CG: 33.2±0.8 vs. CnCWI: 33.8±1.9°C, InCWI: 33.5±1°C). Similarly, no between group interactions were observed in the non-dominant limb in the anterior plane (F(4,74)= 0.68, p= 0.64): post24 (CG: 33.4±1.0°C vs. CnCWI: 34±2.1°C, InCWI: 33.6±0.9°C); post48: (CG: 34.1±0.9°C vs. CnCWI: 33.9±1 °C, InCWI: 34.0±1°C), or for the posterior plane (F(4,74)=0.70, p=0.59), post-24 (CG: 33.1±0.9°C vs. CnCWI: 33.2±0.7°C, InCWI: 33.5±1°C); post48 (CG: 33.1±0.9°C vs. CnCWI: 33.3±0.7°C, InCWI: 33.6±1.1°C). CONCLUSIONS: Neither CWI protocol reduced mean or maximal lower limb skin temperature at 24 nor 48 hours post fatiguing protocol.

Influence of 2-Weeks Ingestion of High Chlorogenic Acid Coffee on Mood State, Performance, and Postexercise Inflammation and Oxidative Stress: A Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Trial

This study measured the influence of 2-weeks ingestion of high chlorogenic acid (CQA) coffee on postexercise inflammation and oxidative stress, with secondary outcomes including performance and mood state. Cyclists (N = 15) were randomized to CQA coffee or placebo (300ml/day) for 2weeks, participated in a 50-km cycling time trial, and then crossed over to the opposite condition with a 2-week washout period. Blood samples were collected pre- and postsupplementation, and immediately postexercise. CQA coffee was prepared using the Turkish method with 30g lightly roasted, highly ground Hambela coffee beans in 300ml boiling water, and provided 1,066mg CQA and 474mg caffeine versus 187mg CQA and 33mg caffeine for placebo. Plasma caffeine was higher with CQA coffee versus placebo after 2-weeks (3.3-fold) and postexercise (21.0-fold) (interaction effect, p < .001). Higher ferric reducing ability of plasma (FRAP) levels were measured after exercise with CQA coffee versus placebo (p = .01). No differences between CQA coffee and placebo were found for postexercise increases in plasma IL-6 (p = .74) and hydroxyoctadecadienoic acids (9 + 13HODEs) (p = .99). Total mood disturbance (TMD) scores were lower with CQA coffee versus placebo (p = .04). 50-km cycling time performance and power did not differ between trials, with heart rate and ventilation higher with CQA coffee, especially after 30min. In summary, despite more favorable TMD scores with CQA coffee, these data do not support the chronic use of coffee highly concentrated with chlorogenic acids and caffeine in mitigating postexercise inflammation or oxidative stress or improving 50-km cycling performance.

Comparison of Watermelon and Carbohydrate Beverage on Exercise-Induced Alterations in Systemic Inflammation, Immune Dysfunction, and Plasma Antioxidant Capacity.

Consuming carbohydrate- and antioxidant-rich fruits during exercise as a means of supporting and enhancing both performance and health is of interest to endurance athletes. Watermelon (WM) contains carbohydrate, lycopene, l-citrulline, and l-arginine. WM may support exercise performance, augment antioxidant capacity, and act as a countermeasure to exercise-induced inflammation and innate immune changes. Trained cyclists (n = 20, 48 ± 2 years) participated in a randomized, placebo controlled, crossover study. Subjects completed two 75 km cycling time trials after either 2 weeks ingestion of 980 mL/day WM puree or no treatment. Subjects drank either WM puree containing 0.2 gm/kg carbohydrate or a 6% carbohydrate beverage every 15 min during the time trials. Blood samples were taken pre-study and pre-, post-, 1 h post-exercise. WM ingestion versus no treatment for 2-weeks increased plasma l-citrulline and l-arginine concentrations (p < 0.0125). Exercise performance did not differ between WM puree or carbohydrate beverage trials (p > 0.05), however, the rating of perceived exertion was greater during the WM trial (p > 0.05). WM puree versus carbohydrate beverage resulted in a similar pattern of increase in blood glucose, and greater increases in post-exercise plasma antioxidant capacity, l-citrulline, l-arginine, and total nitrate (all p < 0.05), but without differences in systemic markers of inflammation or innate immune function. Daily WM puree consumption fully supported the energy demands of exercise, and increased post-exercise blood levels of WM nutritional components (l-citrulline and l-arginine), antioxidant capacity, and total nitrate, but without an influence on post-exercise inflammation and changes in innate immune function.

Effect of repeat-sprint training in hypoxia on post-exercise interleukin-6 and F2-isoprostanes

This investigation examined the oxidative stress (F2-Isoprostane; F2-IsoP) and inflammatory (interleukin-6; IL-6) responses to repeat-sprint training in hypoxia (RSH). Ten trained male team sport athletes performed 3(sets)*9(repetitions)*5 s cycling sprints in simulated altitude (3000 m) and sea-level conditions. Mean and peak sprint power output (MPO and PPO) were recorded, and blood samples were collected pre-exercise, and again at 8 and 60 min post-exercise. Both MPO and PPO were significantly reduced in hypoxia (compared to sea-level) in the second (MPO: 855 ± 89 vs. 739 ± 95 W, p = .006; PPO: 1024 ± 114 vs. 895 ± 112 W, p = .010) and third (MPO: 819 ± 105 vs. 686 ± 83 W, p = .008; PPO: 985 ± 125 vs. 834 ± 99 W, p = .008) sets, respectively. IL-6 was significantly increased from pre- to 1 h post-exercise in both hypoxia (0.7 ± 0.2 vs. 2.4 ± 1.4 pg/mL, p = .004) and sea-level conditions (0.7 ± 0.2 vs. 1.6 ± 0.3 pg/mL, p < .001), with a large effect (d = 0.80) suggesting higher IL-6 levels of post-hypoxia. F2-IsoP was significantly lower 1 h post-exercise in both the hypoxic (p = .005) and sea-level (p = .002) conditions, with no differences between trials. While hypoxia can impact on exercise intensity and may result in greater post-exercise inflammation, it appears to have little effect on oxidative stress. These results indicate that team sport organisations with ready access to hypoxic training facilities could confidently administer RSH without significantly increasing the post-exercise inflammatory or oxidative stress response.

Influence of post-exercise hypoxic exposure on hepcidin response in athletes

To assess the influence of a simulated altitude exposure (~2,900 m above sea level) for a 3 h recovery period following intense interval running on post-exercise inflammation, serum iron, ferritin, erythropoietin, and hepcidin response. In a cross-over design, ten well-trained male endurance athletes completed two 8 × 3 min interval running sessions at 85 % of their maximal aerobic velocity on a motorized treadmill, before being randomly assigned to either a hypoxic (HYP: F IO2 ~0.1513) or a normoxic (NORM: F IO2 0.2093) 3 h recovery period. Venous blood was collected pre- and immediately post-exercise, and after 3 and 24 h of recovery. Blood was analyzed for interleukin-6, serum iron, ferritin, erythropoietin, and hepcidin. Interleukin-6 was significantly elevated (p < 0.01) immediately post-exercise compared to baseline (NORM: 1.08 ± 0.061 to 3.12 ± 1.80) (HYP: 1.32 ± 0.86 to 2.99 ± 2.02), but was not different between conditions. Hepcidin levels were significantly elevated (p < 0.01) at 3 h post-exercise for both conditions when compared to baseline (NORM: 3.25 ± 1.23 to 7.40 ± 4.00) (HYP: 3.24 ± 1.94 to 5.42 ± 3.20), but were significantly lower (p < 0.05) in the HYP trial compared to NORM. No significant differences existed between HYP and NORM for erythropoietin, serum iron, or ferritin. Simulated altitude exposure (~2,900 m) for 3 h following intense interval running attenuates the peak hepcidin levels recorded at 3 h post-exercise. Consequently, a hypoxic recovery after exercise may be useful for athletes with compromised iron status to potentially increase acute dietary iron absorption.

Effects of a Flavonoid-Rich Juice on Inflammation, Oxidative Stress, and Immunity in Elite Swimmers: A Metabolomics-Based Approach

The effects of a flavonoid-rich fresh fruit and vegetable juice (JUICE) on chronic resting and postexercise inflammation, oxidative stress, immune function, and metabolic profiles (metabolomics analysis, gas-chromatography mass-spectrometry platform) in elite sprint and middle-distance swimmers were studied. In a randomized, crossover design with a 3-wk washout period, swimmers (n = 9) completed 10-d training with or without 16 fl oz of JUICE (230 mg flavonoids) ingested pre- and postworkout. Blood samples were taken presupplementation, post-10-d supplementation, and immediately postexercise, with data analyzed using a 2 × 3 repeated-measures ANOVA. Prestudy blood samples were also acquired from nonathletic controls (n = 7, age- and weight-matched) and revealed higher levels of oxidative stress in the swimmers, no differences in inflammation or immune function, and a distinct separation in global metabolic scores (R2Y [cum] = .971). Swim workouts consisted of high-intensity intervals (1:1, 1:2 swim-to-rest ratio) and induced little inflammation, oxidative stress, or immune changes. A distinct separation in global metabolic scores was found pre- to postexercise (R2Y [cum] = .976), with shifts detected in a small number of metabolites related to substrate utilization. No effect of 10-d JUICE was found on chronic resting levels or postexercise inflammation, oxidative stress, immune function, and shifts in metabolites. In conclusion, sprint and middle-distance swimmers had a slight chronic elevation in oxidative stress compared with nonathletic controls, experienced a low magnitude of postworkout perturbations in the biomarkers included in this study, and received no apparent benefit other than added nutrient intake from ingesting JUICE pre- and postworkout for 10 days.

Bananas as an energy source during exercise: a metabolomics approach.

This study compared the acute effect of ingesting bananas (BAN) versus a 6% carbohydrate drink (CHO) on 75-km cycling performance and post-exercise inflammation, oxidative stress, and innate immune function using traditional and metabolomics-based profiling. Trained cyclists (N = 14) completed two 75-km cycling time trials (randomized, crossover) while ingesting BAN or CHO (0.2 g/kg carbohydrate every 15 min). Pre-, post-, and 1-h-post-exercise blood samples were analyzed for glucose, granulocyte (GR) and monocyte (MO) phagocytosis (PHAG) and oxidative burst activity, nine cytokines, F2-isoprostanes, ferric reducing ability of plasma (FRAP), and metabolic profiles using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Blood glucose levels and performance did not differ between BAN and CHO (2.41±0.22, 2.36±0.19 h, P = 0.258). F2-isoprostanes, FRAP, IL-10, IL-2, IL-6, IL-8, TNFα, GR-PHAG, and MO-PHAG increased with exercise, with no trial differences except for higher levels during BAN for IL-10, IL-8, and FRAP (interaction effects, P = 0.003, 0.004, and 0.012). Of 103 metabolites detected, 56 had exercise time effects, and only one (dopamine) had a pattern of change that differed between BAN and CHO. Plots from the PLS-DA model visualized a distinct separation in global metabolic scores between time points [R2Y(cum) = 0.869, Q2(cum) = 0.766]. Of the top 15 metabolites, five were related to liver glutathione production, eight to carbohydrate, lipid, and amino acid metabolism, and two were tricarboxylic acid cycle intermediates. BAN and CHO ingestion during 75-km cycling resulted in similar performance, blood glucose, inflammation, oxidative stress, and innate immune levels. Aside from higher dopamine in BAN, shifts in metabolites following BAN and CHO 75-km cycling time trials indicated a similar pattern of heightened production of glutathione and utilization of fuel substrates in several pathways.