Postcolonial Studies Perspective Research Articles

The Genealogy of Confucian Modernity and the Reconstruction of Confucian Traditions in Post-Liberation Korea

Abstract: This article aims to trace the genealogy of Confucian modernity after Korea's liberation from Japanese rule and analyze how the historical context in which Confucian traditions were reconstructed. It seeks to analyze the process through which the disparate concepts of modernity and Confucianism were combined, moving beyond the perspective of denigration and development of Confucian traditions found in existing studies and approaching it from the perspective of postcolonial studies and traditions as invented practices. From the post-liberation period to the early 1960s, two arguments competed: one viewed Confucianism as having ruined the country, while the other claimed that it had sprouted modern times. While the former view still persisted, Confucianism was being used for political purposes, and scholars including Ch'ŏn Kwanu made efforts to find the sprout of modernism from Confucianism. The turning point came with the fervor of "modernization" that swept the country and the world in the 1960s. Influenced by domestic and foreign modernization theories, including Rostow's modernization theory, which began in the United States, the Park Chung Hee regime embraced the "modernization of the motherland" as its slogan. At the academic level, this trend was reinforced by the United States' support for Korean studies. In this process, discussions linking traditional Confucianism with modernization became more sophisticated in the intellectual community. By the late 1960s, these discussions went beyond explaining the connection between Confucianism and modernity through the concept of sprouting and reached a level of directly mentioning their connection. In the 1970s, this trend intensified further, leading to the conclusion that sirhak (practical learning) in Confucianism had pioneered its own modernization theory before the adoption of Western modernity. Through these analyses, this study aims to delineate the genealogy of discussions about Confucianism, such as that it is the cause of underdevelopment represented by stagnation or that it is the basis of East Asian modernity. Ultimately, by analyzing the contexts in which Confucian traditions are reconceptualized, this study aims to critically reconstruct the notions of tradition, nationalism, and modernity.

Reflexos do Império na educação portuguesa (1906 - 1951). Desbravando um campo pouco explorado

Abstract Repercussions of the Empire in Portuguese Education (1906 to 1951). Breaking new ground in a little-explored field, this text addresses the question of the image of the colonies and the colonized in the context of Portuguese education (1906 to 1951) through Portuguese textbooks and a manual to teach indigenous Angolan children. The latter was edited in two moments - we suppose at the beginning of the Republic and in re-editions during the Dictatorship. We used materials referring to the first colonial exhibition in 1934 and the 1940 Portuguese World exhibition. The work is situated in the perspective of postcolonial studies, attempting to re-read colonialism in Portuguese education. We used heterogeneous sources and raised some questions to point out that much is yet to be studied.

Decolonizing Britain: An Exchange

Abstract Beginning in January 2021, Twentieth Century British History asked a group of scholars to reflect on what decolonization means to the field of British history. Twentieth Century British History co-editor Erik Linstrum (University of Virginia) posed questions over email for three rounds of discussion which concluded in December 2021. Stuart Ward (University of Copenhagen), Vanessa Ogle (University of California, Berkeley), and Saima Nasar (University of Bristol) took part. Priyamvada Gopal (Cambridge University) offered a final comment from the perspective of postcolonial studies. Contributions have been lightly edited but the relatively conversational style and flow of ideas in the original exchange have been preserved.

ORIENTALISM AND POST-COLONIAL READING OF THE U.S. POLICY TOWARD INDONESIA DURING NIXON ADMINISTRATION

Abstract Through the examination of documents pertaining to the United States policies toward Indonesia, this paper studies how Washington viewed Indonesia almost three decades after colonialism had been officially over. More specifically, this paper studies U.S. assistance programs provided for Indonesia during the administration of President Richard M. Nixon. By using the perspective of postcolonial studies on international relations, it shows that while on the surface the assistance programs of the Nixon administration appeared to be altruistic and helpful, a deeper look at them shows that the programs were imbued with subliminal Eurocentric liberal international theory of international relations. It further shows that the administration’s programs were not only self-serving, but were also implemented with an orientalist spirit by the United States as part of the “superior” West over Indonesia that was considered part of the East and therefore was “inferior” and in need of help from the West. In light of Edward Said’s postcolonial studies of West and East relations, the policies clearly reflect orientalist views and practices, even long after colonialism formally ended. Keywords: Orientalism, English School Theory, Neoliberal International Theory, the Nixon administration, Indonesia

Ucronias do bem-viver

Análise da arte visual e performática na página do Instagram Feitiço Repente. Na perspectiva dos estudos pós-coloniais, discute a arte como resistência (artivismo) nos países periféricos propondo um olhar a respeito do fetichismo de consumo. Com ênfase na revisão bibliográfica acerca das perspectivas de Ramírez (2019) e Bourriaud (2009), entre outros, apresenta alternativas na linha da estética relacional e das ucronias no confronto com paradigmas capitalistas.

Internationalisation and the validity of knowledge in religious education as a field of research

ABSTRACT Building on the notion of validity claims within the discussion on international knowledge transfer in religious education as a field of research, three views on the contextuality of knowledge are discussed. From a classical perspective in the sociology of science, the issue of validity must be treated irrespective of matters of context. Secondly, from the perspective of postcolonial studies, this naïve view is criticised as a veiled form of Eurocentrism. Thirdly, these two general views are concretised in light of a reception process bridging the Global South and the Global North. To this end, exemplary factors contributing to the inclusion of Paulo Freire’s pedagogical work in discourses on religious education are analysed. What emerges through these analyses is a differentiated view of validity resting on the de- and recontextualisation of knowledge that allows for it to oscillate between different contexts.

<em>The Seven Wise Masters</em> as a Resource for Studying Historical Diversity: Comparing Latin and Early German Versions with Texts from the Eastern Tradition from a Postcolonial Studies Perspective

<em>The Seven Wise Masters</em> as a Resource for Studying Historical Diversity: Comparing Latin and Early German Versions with Texts from the Eastern Tradition from a Postcolonial Studies Perspective

A Mulher nos Contos de Mia Couto: uma Leitura Pós-colonial

Como um conjunto de teorias que analisa as implicações políticas, filosóficas, culturais e literárias deixadas pelos colonizadores nos locais que colonizaram, adotando em relação a elas uma perspectiva crítica e contra elas uma prática combativa, o pós-colonialismo pressupõe a ocorrência de uma produção literária - a literatura pós-colonial - que privilegia a cultura de todos aqueles que foram colonizados pelas nações europeias. Nas literaturas africanas de expressão portuguesa, seguindo essa trilha aberta pela expressão estética na perspectiva do pós-colonialismo, a mulher passa a ser representada como alguém que começa a “sentir a terra”, livre de tabus e de imposições, libertando-se, parcialmente, de imposições masculinas e assumindo um papel de sujeito de sua própria história. Nesse sentido, este artigo procura analisar dois contos de Mia Couto ("O perfume", em Estórias abensonhadas e "O cesto", em O fio das missangas), a partir da perspectiva teórica dos Estudos Pós-Coloniais, destacando o papel que a mulher representa nestes contos.

Estonian nationalism through the postcolonial lens

ABSTRACTThe article approaches the controversial topics of (post-)Soviet Estonian nationalism from the perspective of Postcolonial Studies, drawing upon nationalism theory, as well as comparative literary and cultural analysis. It is argued that the global context of postcoloniality allows reflective intellectual space that enables analysis of Estonian nationalism’s problems and potential in their cultural and political embeddedness, without idealizing or demonizing it.

Nem ordem nem progresso para o nosso território. O (des-)ordenamento territorial na Galiza

The Galician territorial structure is a complex reality, heir of a long evolution and influenced by intense social, political and economical forces that resulted in drastic alterations. Thus, spatial planning was required to readjust such situation. This essay attempts to briefly point out (from a perspective of post-colonial studies) how this has simply failed, but also how contemporary territorial management practices caused further negative effects in many occasions.

Narrative Unmoored: Photography, Orientalism, and Geopolitics in Roberto Arlt's “La cadena del ancla”

This essay offers a reading of “La cadena del ancla,” a short story that Roberto Arlt wrote as a journalist while on assignment in Morocco during the mid-1930s, from the perspective of postcolonial studies and visual culture. While focusing on the themes of espionage and revenge, it analyzes Orientalist storytelling as a praxis of writing alongside history, through which the Argentine writer documented the rivalry between global colonial powers in 1935. By examining the main characters’ displacement along the coast of North Africa, from Tangier to Cairo, the essay aims to open up the lines of interconnectivity between photography and narrative, visual arts and Mediterranean geopolitical flows. Arlt engages a “repertoire of Orientalism” by interpolating what Graham Huggan has called the “postcolonial exotic,” but he also subverts it by inviting history into the pages of his short story. When read with a postcolonial understanding of the writer's travels, Arlt's visual projection of his experiences in Spain and Morocco makes us better understand how they became an integral part of his more explicitly politicized future writing, especially his plays África (1938) and La fiesta del hierro (1940).

O crepúsculo de um Herói e a aurora dos subversivos nos "Becos da Memória"

We bring into question the concept of subaltern voice’s silencing, in hegemonic discourses, from the theoretical perspective of post-colonial studies and subaltern studies, with attention to the theories of Gayatri Spivak. In interpreting Becos da Memoria narrative, from Conceicao Evaristo (2013), we consider this book as parto f a context in which a subversive literature allow us to problematize the hegemonic literary-criticism sistem. This through a polyphonic narrative, in which there is the representation of subaltern and subversive tactics to tackle asymmetrical social relations, with a re-reading of the role of the hero and a reengendering of the metaphor/metonymy system. In a narrative that rearticulates literary genres stabilized like biography, novel, short story, and oral histories. Through the discussion of the consequences of the “desfavelamento” in the laceration of the social fabric and the social relations and through the challenge of subalternization by slumdwellers-subalterns-subproletarians-marginalized subjects, via resistance and subversion, Conceicao Evaristo allow us to glimpse: the twilight of a Hero and the dawn of subversives.

Neil Lazarus The Postcolonial UnconsciousThe Postcolonial Unconscious. Neil Lazarus. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2011. Pp. vii+299.

<i>Neil Lazarus</i> The Postcolonial Unconscious<i>The Postcolonial Unconscious</i>. Neil Lazarus. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2011. Pp. vii+299.

Poland and Its Eastern Neighbours: A Postcolonial Case Study

Abstract The article presents problematic issues resulting from the Polish presence on the historical eastern border of the II Rzeczpospolita (Republic of Poland), or, as it is called in the Polish national discourse, “Kresy”. The notion of Kresy, to a certain extent, corresponds to the notion of ‘borderland’. However, the latter is neutral and used mostly in scientific discourse, whereas the former alludes to Polish national awareness in literature and much of the historical writings and presents itself as the lost centre of “Polishness”. This way, contemporary Polish historical memory makes substantial claims towards this space, both in a geographical and historical sense, while hardly tolerating the presence of indigenous, non-Polish populations inhabiting the area- Lithuanians, Belarusians, and Ukrainians. In order to revise these issues in the article, I have adopted a postcolonial studies perspective. Looking at Poland through the lens of postcolonial studies reveals that it holds a unique position due to its double status. Historically speaking, Poland occupied both the position of the colonizer and of the colonized. However, popular Polish imagination tends to see Poland only in its role of the oppressed victims of its powerful ibjesial neighbours. The dominant role of Poland and its version of colonial policy adopted towards its contemporary eastern neighbours is obscured or simply denied both in popular and scientific discourse. The analysis of the role of the “myth of Kresy”, proposed here, hopes to contribute to the understanding of the implications of the Polish contemporary “orientalism”.

Postcolonial Times: Lock the Gate or Pull Down the Fences? A special Monograph Edition

The development of a rural coal seam gas industry in regional Australia, together with its key technology, fracking, has been met by a very active, lively and vocal social protest movement. This 2013 Tricontinental Lecture in Postcolonial Studies reflects on this protest movement from two perspectives. First, it examines what a postcolonial studies perspective may bring to further understanding the relationships and dynamics between the industry and the protest movement. Secondly, it considers what postcolonial scholars themselves may be able to bring to critiques of social issues such as this environmental contention. The example described in this lecture also reminds us that postcolonial studies concerns more than the three continents of the Tricontinent, Latin America, Africa and Asia, and that it is centrally concerned with access to environmental resources. Building on the history of the 1966 Tricontinental Conference in Havana, and the growth of postcolonial political philosophy and studies that focus on power, equity and access in postcolonial societies, this essay considers the power differentials between industry and government on the one hand, and the protest movement on the other. By examining the role of language and its control, a key social process in the wielding of power, it is shown that the coal seam gas development debate is couched in terms of industrial or governmental language, and not in the language of the community. This has three important consequences. First, opponents are forced to express concerns about technical matters or scientific matters, thus legitimising the proposed activity. Secondly, opponents are not authorised, within the formal sphere, to express their own feelings through their language of social anxiety, of love of the country, of being in the community, of history. Thirdly, both sides find themselves in a typical cross-cultural dilemma: either speak an inadequate form of language that the other party understands but that does not actually express what you mean, or speak your own language and risk the other party not understanding what you mean. Copyright © Bill Boyd 2013. This text may be archived and redistributed both in electronic form and in hard copy, provided that the author and journal are properly cited and no fee is charged. Coolabah, No.12, 2013, ISSN 1988-5946, Observatori: Centre d’Estudis Australians, Australian Studies Centre, Universitat de Barcelona 2 From a postcolonial studies perspective, this example reminds students of two key processes. First, students need to master the intellectual skills of the humanities in order to provide critical analysis of social situations. Secondly, students need to know that, as western scholars, they are as much part of any postcolonial problem as those in power, and therefore need to develop good reflective skills and to learn to think ‘otherwise’. This invited monograph is the text of the lecture, supplemented with further comments and illustrations, delivered to second year Humanities students at the University of Barcelona, Catalonia, on Monday 8th April 2013

Reflective Colonization: Domination, Consent, and the Self in Imperial Russia

Historians have pointed out that as a terrestrial rather than an overseas empire, the Russian empire has had to grapple with a blurry boundary between imperial center and periphery. Ektind goes a step further to show that the Russian empire was the stage for intensive colonization of the imperial core itself and the attendant processes of self-orientalization and self-alienation. The review identifies and explores three dimensions of the process of internal colonization. In the first, colonization by consent, Russian historical writers’ interpretations of the origins of the state in terms of consent to (foreign) domination are contextualized by drawing on colonizers’ fantasy of consent across contexts and historical periods, and by pointing to resistance as an important aspect of the relation between Russian imperial elites and the colonized. The second dimension is the idea of colonizing “one’s own,” whereby elites not only coerced people of the imperial core into various practices, but also viewed them through an orientalizing lens, and this, from the beginnings of serfdom through the nineteenth-century populists’ efforts at rapprochement (the perceived divide between rulers and ruled is, it is argued, still salient in Russian politics). The last dimension, strangers to ourselves, deals with the “splitting of the self” from a postcolonial studies perspective but it is pointed out that the use of psychoanalytic frameworks and literary theory may reproduce orientalist interpretations of the Russian imperial self. Instead, it is argued that self-orientalizing discourses in the Russian context may serve to divert attention away from one’s actual power.

Postcolonial Studies after 9/11: A Response to Ali Behdad

Ali Behdad's essay is situated at the intersection of postcolonial studies, American studies, and ethnic studies. It highlights the need to counter exceptionalist readings of the events of 9/11 by using a critical historicism that can simultaneously address the new turn Islamophobia and Orientalism have taken and explore their linkages to older modes of racialization. The point of Behdad's essay is less to offer a general theory of critical historicism than to demonstrate its strategic uses in countering “the amnesiac production and reproduction of race and ethnicity.” This intervention traverses fields that, while sharing concerns about nationalism, minoritization, imperialism, and globalization, have often explored them in disparate historical and geographical contexts. The overlapping concerns between these fields have not often generated conversations that bring them into strenuous contestation and exchange with each other. Given the asymmetrical intellectual flows that define relationships between ethnic studies and postcolonial studies, scholars from ethnic studies have been more intensively engaged in refitting postcolonial theory to engage racialization and its entanglements with shifting modes of US imperialism than have postcolonial studies scholars in addressing the specificities of US imperialism or the interconnected histories of racialization in the US. For scholars of postcoloniality, the diaspora model, with its emphasis on linkages between migrants and their homelands, has been the predominant model for thinking through the entailments of race in the metropolis. The westward movement of US expansion, its extension into the Asia-Pacific region, the hemispheric circuits linking it to Latin America and the Caribbean, and its belatedness to European imperialism have placed it outside the primary sites of postcolonial theory, namely, Africa, South Asia, and the Middle East. In contrast, American studies have, for nearly two decades, been intensively engaged in exploring the contours of US imperialism and its divergence from European models of territorial domination. Thus, Behdad's essay builds on existing projects in ethnic studies and American studies. However, from the perspective of postcolonial studies, his emphasis on immigration and nation formation in a white-settler colony represents a re-orientation from European to US hegemony and from diasporics and cosmopolitans to immigrants and minorities.

The Postcolonial Middle Ages ed. by Jeffrey Jerome Cohen

STUDIES IN THE AGE OF CHAUCER particularly the idea that for Langland the refoundation of society is contingent upon the reformation of contemporary friars and their return to an apostolic life. For example, he argues that the reference in passus 10 to friars finding the keys to Constantine’s coffers and dispossessing the monks means that friars will one day overpass monks and will ‘‘distribute the goods more readily and needfully’’ (pp. 293–94). Clearly the friars, as scourge of possessioners, need not also be irreproachable themselves; the passage, at least, hardly sustains Clopper’s reading. In short, this is an admirably well researched, eloquent, and intelligent book that should be essential reading for anyone claiming to be a student of Piers Plowman or of medieval Franciscanism. The problems with the book lie largely with emphasis rather than intuition or execution . Emily Steiner University of Pennsylvania Jeffrey Jerome Cohen, ed. The Postcolonial Middle Ages. New Middle Ages Series. New York: St. Martin’s, 2000. Pp. viii, 286. $45.00. What can ‘‘Postcolonial Middle Ages’’ mean? Postcolonial theory has developed in the attempt to come to grips with the massive social and political upheavals of the breakup of the Western European colonial empires. Postcolonial literary studies have been particularly directed to the flowering of writing from outside the old centers of imperial power, especially the writing that appropriated the instruments of Anglophone and Francophone imperial culture to form points of countercolonial resistance during the periods of colonial occupation and to provide for the intellectual and political task of living in its aftermath. Much postcolonial inquiry is understandably quite specifically addressed to the local conditions of conquered and formerly conquered territory and to the urgent issues of social and political policy that are there being fought out daily. As a coherent body of theory, however, the particular intellectual perspective of postcolonial studies, especially its potential for providing methodological possibilities for understanding the processes of representation, resistance, and opposition from within hegemonic structures , seems to provide a promising point d’appui for a revisionary histori538 ................. 8972$$ CH21 11-01-10 12:23:10 PS REVIEWS cal inquiry with wider application than to the strictly ‘‘post-colonial’’ period that gave rise to it. The book under review takes its title— paradoxical at first glance—from this promise. The book has a wide range and several related aims, and in this review I want to isolate them in order to clarify their relevance to medieval studies at our particular historical moment. This nicely produced and carefully edited collection by different writers is not a miscellany but a tightly constructed set of fourteen unfailingly interesting essays organized deliberately as thematically related chapters. Addressed to a great diversity of material, one of the book’s unifying principles is to further the classic work of the historian, the attempt empirically to reconstruct the past. What is new in this empirical work is the outcome of the postcolonial perspectives deployed by the various contributors. These include the strong attention paid to borders rather than centers as the places where ‘‘history happens,’’ the concern with marginalized or excluded voices, and in the words of the jacket copy, with ‘‘the mechanisms of oppression through which ‘aboriginal, ‘native,’ or simply pre-existent cultures are displaced, eradicated, or transformed.’’ Most important, the effort is motivated by the systematic avoidance of the explanatory power of any grand or unitary narrative in favor of exploring local trajectories, scattered hegemonies, and the transitory effects of power in a complex field of competing interests, voices, and perspectives . In this preference for the peripheral and local postcolonial theory intersects with the hallmark of postmodern historiography: the shift of attention to the border territory and the local trajectory in all postcolonial inquiry cannot but dissolve the centralizing and totalizing force of any grand narrative. The medieval past thus reconstructed is polyglot, ethnically and religiously diverse, socially fluid, and historically thick. Although the title refers to ‘‘the’’ Middle Ages, the contents of the book are far more restricted. Overwhelmingly insular in their geographical focus, the separate chapters cluster for the most part around the period from 1380–1450. Although motivated by historiographical matters , the book is methodologically strictly literary critical...

Ireland, Europe, The World, The Universe: Political Geography in A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man

At this early stage of A Portrait, Stephen Dedalus stands as a painfully sympathetic figure. He feels homesick; he is confused about his geography lesson; and he has just been shoved into a sewer ditch. His attempt to locate his place in relation to the universe causes him further confusion and gives him a headache. Even into his adulthood, the issue of Stephen's rightful place remains unresolved; his eventual goal of exile only suggests where it is not. This ongoing drama of place and displacement makes it easy to bypass the peculiarities of Stephen's schoolboy list in favor of his adult meditations on language, religion, and art. As a result, the crucial error in his flyleaf inscription remains unacknowledged: Stephen skips from Ireland to Europe, excluding The United Kingdom as an incorporating term. He thus unwittingly produces a text that rends a gaping hole in the fabric of British colonial history. Despite such narrative interventions, it is still tacitly acknowledged that the concerns of Joyce's A Portrait are primarily aesthetic rather than political, as its transformation from the more socially conversant Stephen Hero to its compressed final form suggests. While more recent attention to Joyce from a postcolonial studies perspective has helped debunk the legend

The Hispanic Post-Colonial Tourist

The Hispanic Post-Colonial Tourist Jaume Marti-Olivella Allegheny College The Transnational Subject as Post-Colonial Tourist In this paper I want to bring together my critical interests in the fields of Feminism, Hispanism and Cultural Studies. ' More specifically, I want to argue the creation of a new narrative figure, what I will term the "transnational subject" which, if seen from the perspective of post-colonial studies becomes a new site to articulate the historical and narratological tension between the old metropolis and new decentered cultutal locations . I will focus on the ongoing trend among women writers from the Hispanic world to deconstruct popular narrative genres which have been traditionally dominated by male authors. This trend constitutes a parodie rewriting of some of the "foundational fictions" that established the (male) national subject, as Doris Sommer has so persuasively argued.2 My goal in this essay is to contextualize this new Hispanic feminism and its textual politics against the patriarchal consolidation of those national subjects. Quite consistently, these writers create characters who are "travellers ," who ate separated, both factually and/or imaginatively, from their desired others. It is this "travelling condition" that is central to my study since it produces a new narrative figure, that of the "post-colonial tourist " or the "transnational subject." To analyze this figure requires a critical shift from the ongoing process of textual decolonization of traditional Arizona Journal of Hispanic Cultural Studies Volume 1, 1997 24 Arizona Journal of Hispanic Cultural Studies travel narratives and colonial chronicles in order to focus our critical gaze on the most important form of travel today: tourism. In the Iberian and the Latin American contexts, the role tourism has played in the socioeconomic transformation of society is an obvious one. Much less obvious, however, is the significance of tourism as an important factor in the process of (trans) national refiguration in our countries. A different and yet quite relevant question is to ask if tourism, both intellectual and recreational , becomes a multicultural practice of ideological and narratological significance. Or, to say it in Homi Bhabha's terms, if our transnational narratives ate not destabilizing the traditional "location of culture."3 The work of Carme Riera, Mercedes Abad and Ana Lydia Vega constitutes an illustration of such "an innovative site of collaboration and contestation" (Bhabha 2) In what follows I will study the parodie gestures of these three leading voices in the new Hispanic feminism, as a contestation of the foundational romantic fictions of their patriarchal predecessors. Before beginning my textual analysis, however, I would like to establish mote death/ the theotetical connections between tourism as a social practice and its narrative consttuction in the context of other postcolonial strategies. Interestingly enough, tourism has already generated a considerable amount of analytical literature in the social sciences. And yet, it has received far less attention from the fields of post-colonial and Cultural Studies. Most studies on the subject have been devoted to early travel writings, from the Spanish so-called "conquest" of the Americas to the British "imperial travelogues" of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries . Instead, I want to suggest that tourism has become the contemporary privileged scenario of the "colonial encounter," or, as Mary Louise Pratt has it: of "the contact zone."4 Briefly put, my contention is that tourism constitutes the most salient aspect of a neo-colonial situation, that is, the massive exploitation of natural and/or cultural resources of the so-called Second and Third Worlds by members of the so-called First World. This consideration is both highly contested and widely echoed by many statements coming from sociological and anthropological studies of tourism. Dennison Nash's essay on "Tourism as a Form of Imperialism " offers one of its clearest formulations: If productivity is the key to tourism, then any analysis of touristic development without reference to productive centers that generate tourist needs and tourists is bound to be incomplete. Such metropolitan centers have varying degrees of control over the nature of tourism and its development, but they exercise it—at least at the beginning of their relationship with tourist Jaume MartÃ--Olivella 25 areas—in alien regions. It is this power over touristic and related developments...