Post Season Research Articles

Nutritional Optimization for Brain Health in Contact Sports: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis on Long-Chain ω-3 Fatty Acids and Neurofilament Light

Accumulating evidence has highlighted the acute and chronic impact of repetitive subconcussive head impacts (rSHIs) in contact sports. Neurofilament-light (Nf-L), a brain-derived biomarker of neuroaxonal injury, elevates in concert with rSHI. Recently, long-chain ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC ω-3 PUFAs) supplementation has been suggested to mitigate brain injury from rSHI as reflected by attenuation of Nf-L concentrations within contact sport athletes. Using a systematic review with a meta-analysis, we aimed to determine the effect of LC ω-3 PUFA supplementation on Nf-L concentrations in athletes routinely exposed to rSHI. Electronic databases (PubMed and CINAHL) were searched from inception through January 2024. One-stage meta-analysis of individual participant-level data was used to detect changes in Nf-L concentrations between LC ω-3 PUFA and control/placebo (PL) groups from baseline to midseason (MS) and postseason (PS). Least square means (±SE) for Nf-L change from baseline were compared by treatment group for MS/PS using contrast t tests. Significance was set a priori at adjusted P ≤ 0.05. Of 460 records identified, 3 studies in collegiate American football players (n = 179; LC ω-3 PUFA = 105, PL = 71) were included in the meta-analysis. Compared with PL, the change in Nf-L concentrations was statistically similar at MS [mean difference (MD) = –1.66 ± 0.82 pg·mL–1, adjusted P = 0.09] and significantly lower at PS (MD = –2.23 ± 0.83 pg·mL–1, adjusted P = 0.02) in athletes following LC ω-3 PUFA supplementation. Our findings demonstrate preliminary support for the prophylactic administration of LC ω-3 PUFA in contact sport athletes exposed to rSHI; however, further research is required to determine the effective dosage required.This trial was registered at OSF (DOI: https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/EY5QW).

Effect of Cross Fit Training During Post Season of Track and Field Athletes

Background: CrossFit is a high-intensity interval training that has gained popularity recently and incorporates avariety of functional activities. CrossFit is a comprehensive program for strength and conditioning. The majorityof the CrossFit workouts are intense strength training sessions. This training method involves quick, repetitivemovements with no rest. CrossFit exercise regimen aims to improve physical proficiency across fitness domains,including strength, flexibility, power, speed, coordination, agility, and balance. Various activities includepowerlifting, Olympic weightlifting, sprinting, rowing, kettlebells and gymnastics.Purpose: The Purpose of the study is to determine the effects of CrossFit training during post season of track andfield athletes.Methods: A total of 40 athletes were selected from Saveetha School Physical education, Chennai. Participants wererandomly allocated into the control and experimental group, participants in the experimental group were trainedfor CrossFit training, and control group participants were asked to continue their exercise training for 6 weeks.Results: The effectiveness was evaluated by using paired t-test. The post-test values of the experimental andcontrol group medicine ball throw was 11.380 ± 0.657 and 10.205 ± 0.823, the vertical jump test was 71.75 ± 4.77and 66.55 ± 4.29, the vo2 max test was 64.25 ± 4.35 and 56.95 ± 4.19 and 30m dash run test was 3.930 ± 0.256 and4.130 ± 0.138 and P value less than 0.01, respectivelyConclusion: Hereby, it has been that Incorporating CrossFit training into the post-season training protocol can bevery beneficial for track and field competitors.

Range of Motion and Muscle Strength Changes in Japanese Professional Pitchers During the Baseball Season.

There are no studies examining changes in the physical function throughout the baseball season in Japanese professional players. We examined the range of motion (ROM) and muscle strength changes in professional baseball pitchers as the season progresses. Five professional baseball pitchers were included. ROM, flexibility, and muscle strength of the trunk and shoulder, elbow, hip, knee, and ankle joints were measured pre-season (PRE), mid-season (MID), and post-season (POST). The total shoulder arc ROM of the dominant sides significantly decreased compared to that of the nondominant sides at MID and POST. Shoulder abduction muscle strength of the dominant sides significantly decreased at POST compared to that at PRE. In the trunk, lateral flexion ROM of bilateral sides significantly decreased at MID and POST compared to that at PRE, and the duration time of the side bridge test of the dominant sides significantly decreased at POST to that at PRE. Hip extension ROM and muscle strength and internal rotation ROM of the push-off leg significantly decreased at POST compared to that at PRE. The total shoulder arc ROM and shoulder abductor muscle strength of the dominant sides, trunk lateral flexion ROM and muscle strength, push-off leg hip joint extension muscle strength and ROM, and internal rotation ROMwere more susceptible to changes as the season progressed. In order to maintain performance and prevent a throwing disorder, it is necessary to focus on these movements during the season and to appropriately train and condition these muscle groups.

Drip fertigation with food waste biogas effluent in a humid area is possible but challenging due to increased soil soluble sodium

To assess changes in soil salinity and salinity leaching following rainfall when food waste biogas effluent was used as a fertilizer in a humid region, a field experiment was conducted in 2020–2022 focused on broccoli drip fertigation with different percentages of biogas effluent. Five treatments consisted of 0% (CF), 25% (T25), 50% (T50), 75% (T75), and 100% (T100) biogas effluent blended with fresh water, with the same total N, P, and K. The experiment included a control (CK) that consisted of drip irrigation without fertilizer. The electrical conductivity of soil saturation paste extract (ECe), soluble sodium, sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), cation ratio of structural stability (CROSS), and broccoli yield were monitored. Drip fertigation with biogas effluent (electrical conductivity=19.0 dS/m) increased soil salinity and the ECe rose as the biogas effluent percentage increased, especially in the 0–20 cm soil profile. The T25, T50, T75, and T100 treatment ECe values were 1.2–2.2 times those of the CF treatment. Soluble sodium, SAR, and CROSS increased during the fertilization season. However, compared with CF, 25–100% biogas effluent drip fertigation did not significantly affect broccoli yield. During the post season, the soil salinity was effectively leached by rainwater. After one study year of rotation, there was almost no significant difference in ECe between treatments, but the soluble sodium, SAR, and CROSS values were significantly higher in T100 than in the CF treatment. In other words, when the total applied fresh water amount (including rainfall and irrigation) is more than 45–48 times the biogas effluent application amount (i.e., irrigation with a biogas effluent concentration of ≤75%), it may not significantly increase the soil soluble sodium. In conclusion, drip fertigation with biogas effluent can be used for broccoli fertigation in humid areas, and treatment with≤ 75% biogas effluent is suggested. Combined with the local rainfall depth, a biogas effluent application depth of ≤ 28–30 mm/year may be feasible.

Relaxed Alert Electroencephalography Screening for Mild Traumatic Brain Injury in Athletes.

Due to the mildness of initial injury, many athletes with recurrent mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) are misdiagnosed with other neuropsychiatric illnesses. This study was designed as a proof-of-principle feasibility trial for athletic trainers at a sports facility to generate electroencephalograms (EEGs) from student athletes for discriminating (mTBI) associated EEGs from uninjured ones. A total of 47 EEGs were generated, with 30 athletes recruited at baseline (BL) pre-season, after a concussive injury (IN), and post-season (PS). Outcomes included: 1) visual analyses of EEGs by a neurologist; 2) support vector machine (SVM) classification for inferences about whether particular groups belonged to the three subgroups of BL, IN, or PS; and 3) analyses of EEG synchronies including phase locking value (PLV) computed between pairs of distinct electrodes. All EEGs were visually interpreted as normal. SVM classification showed that BL and IN could be discriminated with 81% accuracy using features of EEG synchronies combined. Frontal inter-hemispheric phase synchronization measured by PLV was significantly lower in the IN group. It is feasible for athletic trainers to record high quality EEGs from student athletes. Also, spatially localized metrics of EEG synchrony can discriminate mTBI associated EEGs from control EEGs.

Prevalence of low energy availability and associations with seasonal changes in salivary hormones and IgA in elite male Gaelic footballers.

Evidence suggests low energy availability (LEA) is prevalent in elite male Gaelic football (GF) players. Previous research in male and female team sports found LEA may negatively impact endocrine function. The aim of this study was to examine the seasonal variations in energy availability (EA) and its associations with salivary measures in elite male GF players across the competitive season. Energy availability was assessed using field-based methods in conjunction with salivary testosterone (s-T), cortisol (s-C) and immunoglobin A (s-IgA) concentrations at pre-season (PRE), in-season (IN) and post-season (POST). 38% reported LEA at PRE, 33% at IN, and 28.5% at POST. s-C, s-T and s-IgA levels were within normal ranges at PRE, IN and POST. Salivary cortisol declined significantly from PRE to IN, remaining reduced at POST. Salivary testosterone decreased significantly from PRE to IN but was significantly elevated at POST compared to IN. Salivary IgA was significantly greater at POST than IN. No significant associations were found between s-C or s-T and EA at any time point. Pre-season s-IgA exhibited a significant inverse association with PRE EA. Decreased s-IgA flow rate and s-IgA secretion rate were significantly associated with decreased EA at PRE. Reduced carbohydrate (CHO) intake was also associated with decreased s-IgA secretion rate at PRE. This study suggests that LEA is prevalent in elite male GF players, but is not associated with s-C or s-T. However, EA is associated with s-IgA which may impact the immune system. Therefore, education and interventions surrounding the prevalence and associations of EA should be implemented in this population.

Preventive Training Program Feedback Complexity, Movement Control, and Performance in Youth Athletes.

Preventive training programs (PTPs) reduce injury risk by improving movement control. Corrective feedback is important; however, many cues at once may be too complicated for athletes. To compare movement control and long-jump (LJ) changes in youth athletes participating in a season-long PTP, with simplified feedback, traditional feedback, or a warmup of the coaches' choosing. Cluster-randomized controlled trial. Soccer fields. A total of 420 athletes (simplified feedback = 173, traditional feedback = 118, and control = 129; age = 11 ± 3 years). Teams were randomized into the simplified PTP, traditional PTP, or control group. Simplified and traditional PTPs lasted 10 to 12 minutes and used the same exercises. The simplified PTP provided only sagittal-plane feedback (eg, "get low"), and the traditional PTP provided feedback targeting all motion planes (eg, "don't let your knees cave inward"). Research assistants administered the PTP warmups 2 to 3 times/week for the season. Control team coaches chose and ran their own warmup strategies. Participants completed 4 sessions (preseason [PRE], postseason [POST] at approximately 8 weeks after PRE, retention 1 [R1] at 6 weeks postseason, and retention 2 [R2] at 12 weeks postseason). They performed 3 trials of a jump-landing task, which was evaluated using the Landing Error Scoring System (LESS) and 2 recorded standing LJ trials at each test session. A time series panel was used to evaluate group differences across time points for the LESS and LJ. Change score analyses revealed improvements in the LESS score from PRE to POST for all groups. Improvements from PRE were retained at R1 and R2 for the intervention groups (simplified and traditional). The traditional group demonstrated better LJ performance at POST (P < .001) and R1 (P = .049) than the simplified or control group. Simplified cues were as effective as traditional cues in improving LESS scores from PRE to POST season. Participating in PTPs, regardless of their complexity, likely provides movement benefits.

Changes In Serum Neurofilament Light And Brain White Matter Microstructure In Female Football Players: A Pilot Study

Repeated mechanical loading of the head can cause axonal damage in a dose-dependent manner. The corpus callosum (CC), a thick commissural white matter tract, is believed to be particularly sensitive to this loading. Neurofilament light (NfL) has emerged as a blood-based biomarker that is sensitive to axonal damage and may be useful for monitoring athlete brain health. However, the source of circulating NfL in contact and collision sport athletes who may have sustained axonal damage due to mechanical loading of the head, but have not been diagnosed with a brain injury, is poorly understood. PURPOSE: To compare changes in serum NfL to changes in corpus callosum (CC) microstructure over a single season of competition. METHODS: Semi-professional female tackle football players (n = 5) had blood drawn (8.5 mL) and underwent diffusion MRI (64 directions, bval = 1300 s/mm2) and structural MRI (T1w, MPRAGE) before and after their season (4 games and 39 practices over 12 weeks). Despite that no participant reported a medical diagnosis of concussion during the season, participants were asked to report the presence and degree of concussion-related symptoms at each time point using the Rivermead Post-Concussion Questionnaire. Serum samples were assayed for (NfL) at pre and post season time points. The CC was reconstructed for each participant from preprocessed diffusion MRI data using automatic fiber tracking and atlas-guided tract recognition with bilateral cerebellar hemispheres as regions of avoidance (DSI Studio). Microstructural metrics were computed from these reconstructed tracts to represent CC integrity. RESULTS: Increases in NfL were associated with increases in CC radial diffusivity (r2 = .845) and decreases in CC quantitative anisotropy (r2 = .675) and fractional anisotropy (r2 = .967). Changes in NfL and CC integrity were moderately related to changes in concussive symptoms (r2 = .366-.772). CONCLUSIONS: The relationships observed in these preliminary data suggest that changes in serum NfL may be sufficiently sensitive to detect subclinical, ‘subconcussive’ axonal injuries in collision sport athletes.

The Effect of Participatory Heat Education on Agricultural Worker Knowledge

ABSTRACT Objectives: Farmworkers disproportionately experience preventable adverse health effects from heat exposure. We sought to evaluate the effect of participatory heat education on farmworker knowledge. Methods: We conducted a parallel, comparison group intervention study to investigate the effectiveness of a Spanish/English participatory, culturally-tailored, heat education-based intervention on farmworker heat knowledge in the Summer 2019. We used convenience sampling to recruit adult outdoor farmworkers from Central/Eastern Washington State, USA. Crews were randomized to receive the intervention (n = 40 participants) versus not receive the intervention (n = 43 participants). We assessed changes in heat knowledge, scored on a scale from 0 to 11, between baseline, immediate post-intervention, and post-season, which was approximately three months after baseline, using the Wilcoxon signed-rank test. We compared differences in knowledge scores from baseline to post-season between groups using analysis of variance. Results: Average knowledge scores improved from 4.6 (standard deviation [sd] 1.5) to 6.3 (sd 2.0) pre to post season in the intervention group (p < 0.001). There was a greater improvement in pre-post knowledge scores in the intervention (average difference 1.6, sd 2.0) versus the comparison group (average difference 0.41, sd 1.7) (p = 0.04). Conclusions: Participatory heat training was effective in improving farmworker heat knowledge over the course of a summer season. Results of this study will be used to guide heat prevention efforts for farmworkers. Trial registration: ClinicalTrials.gov Registration Number: NCT04234802

Class Year Differences in Anthropometric and Fitness Measures in Division I Field Hockey Athletes Pre and Post Season

The purpose of this study was to investigate the way in which anthropometric and fitness measures vary by class year before and after a Division I female field hockey competitive season. Anthropometric (mass and percent body fat) and fitness measures (vertical jump and Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test 1 (Yo-Yo IR1) distance) were collected on 16 athletes (mean ± SD: age = 19.5 ± 0.9 years) before and after a competitive season. Class year, based on the athlete’s year in college, was used to group athletes in the study. Body mass, vertical jump height, and Yo-Yo IR1 distance all increased pre to post season (p &lt; 0.05). First-year athletes had a significantly lower body mass, vertical jump height and Yo-Yo IR1 distance compared to other class years across the testing period (p &lt; 0.05). Post season levels for first-years were lower than both pre and post season levels for sophomore or junior athletes. Team mean vertical jump increased 8.9%, with all but two athletes improving. Team mean Yo-Yo IR1 distance increased 16.4%. Athlete training over the course of the study was designed to improve on field playing performance and training was not directly select to improve measures in the study; therefore, the potential success of integrating fitness, speed, and strength development into technical training sessions is indicated. Coaches should be aware that first-year athletes may not be at the same level of conditioning as sophomores and juniors. Coaches should work specifically with the first-year athletes during the season to monitor their fitness levels.

Improper Fit in American Youth Football Helmets Across One Competitive Season.

Improper helmet fit is related to sport-related concussion symptomology. The objective of this study was to determine the prevalence of improperly fit helmets in American youth tackle football players across one competitive season. Four recreation leagues including 147 players (45.2 ± 14.7 cm, 147.5 ± 9.0 kg), aged 7-12 years, participated in pre-season and post-season data collection timepoints. Participant and league demographics were collected at pre-season. Helmet fit was assessed at pre- and post-season using a 13-item checklist. A helmet was defined as improperly fit if failed to comply with or more of the checklist items. Most players (84%) rented helmets from the league. At preseason, 71.4% of helmets, and at post-season 79.6%, were improperly fit with no significant change over time (p = 0.14). Of the 105 improperly fit helmets at the start of the season, 61% were still considered improperly fit at post season. The 11-12 year old age group had significantly more improperly fit helmets than the 7-10 year old age group at post-season (p = 0.033), but not pre-season (p = 0.655). American youth football players depend on the league to fit their helmet. Most players did not meet at least one checklist criteria. Helmets improperly fit at preseason were still not fit at post.

A - 26 AMPAR as a Sports Concussion Biomarker and Its Relationship to Neurocognitive Functioning in Collegiate Athletes

Abstract Objective This prospective controlled observational cohort pilot study investigated a potential blood-based biomarker [α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid receptor (AMPAR)] and relationship to neurocognitive testing in collegiate athletes. Methods A multisport sample of 60 collegiate athletes (53% female; 44 contact, 16 non-contact controls) completed ImPACT testing and provided blood samples at a pre-season baseline and within 4 weeks post-season. Plasma and serum samples were processed for AMPAR peptides and antibodies. Twelve athletes did not complete all procedures and were excluded from the final analysis (final n = 48; 36 contact; 12 controls). Results Contact athletes demonstrated greater increases in serum AMPAR antibodies compared to controls (t(46) = 3.24;p &amp;lt; 0.01). On neurocognitive testing, controls had a faster reaction time than contact athletes at baseline (p &amp;lt; 0.05); however, this increased post season (p &amp;lt; 0.01), with the mean change in reaction time (contact: M = 0.06, SD = 0.19; control: M = 0.00, SD = 0.04) approaching significance (t(37.23) = 1.54; p &amp;lt; 0.15). Additionally, ImPACT reaction time was correlated (r = 0.37;p &amp;lt; 0.05) with serum AMPAR antibodies, with slowed reaction time related to increased AMPAR in contact athletes only and only post-season. Conclusions Serum AMPAR antibody levels significantly increased in the contact group and were correlated with reaction time on contact athlete neurocognitive testing at post-season only, with contact athletes showing both slower reaction time and increased levels of AMPAR antibodies compared to controls. No findings were identified in plasma AMPAR peptides, possibly related to sample processing which could not be done immediately in this pilot study. Future research and replication is needed; however, AMPAR may represent a blood-based concussion biomarker, with potential for clinical utility in athletes.

Effects of chronic betaine supplementation on performance in professional young soccer players during a competitive season: a double blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial

ObjectiveVarious nutritional strategies are adopted for athletes to maintain and to improve performance during the competition season. Betaine may enhance performance during a competitive season by increasing the testosterone to cortisol ratio and reducing systemic inflammation. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of betaine supplementation on the bio-motor abilities in young professional soccer players.MethodsTwenty-nine young professional soccer players (age, 15.5±0.3 years) were matched by position and randomly assigned to one of two groups for 14 weeks: betaine (BG, 2 g/day; n=14) or placebo (PG n=15). Diet was standardized by a nutritionist, and measures of muscular power (countermovement jump: CMJ), change of direction: modified 5-0-5), acceleration (10 m sprint), sprint performance (30 m sprint time: SpT), muscular strength (leg press and bench press one repetition maximum: 1-RM), repeated sprint ability (running-based anaerobic sprint test: RAST), and aerobic capacity (30-15 intermittent fitness test) were assessed in the pre (P1), mid (P2) and post (P3) season over the course of 5 days. All subjects participated in one soccer match and five training sessions per week.ResultsSignificant (p < 0.05) group x time interactions were found for maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max), anaerobic peak power, and muscular strength favoring BG at P2 and P3 compared to P1. There were meaningful (p < 0.05) group x time interactions for CMJ, SpT, and peak power during the RAST that favored the BG.Conclusions14-week of betaine supplementation increased predicted 1-RM, VO2max, and repeated sprint ability performance in youth professional soccer players. Betaine supplementation seems to be a useful nutritional strategy to improve and to maintain performance during a competitive soccer season.

Trace Elements Concentration in Domestic Groundwater Wells in Northern Parts of Kelantan, Malaysia

Groundwater is one of the major alternatives of freshwater supply in rural as well as in urban areas in Kelantan. The need for groundwater has been rising day by day for irrigation purposes. The degree of trace elements pollution and the suitability of groundwater for drinking purpose were assessed through analysis of 32 groundwater samples of shallow aquifer. A total of 15 trace elements investigated includes As, Pb, Sr, Ba, Mn, Co, Ni, Cu, Cd, Fe, Zn, Cr, B, Se, and Al. The study reveals that most of the samples analysed contain marginally low concentrations of trace elements. The majority of toxic elements (As and Pb) are found to be in minute quantities and thus assumed to be inattentive in the wells. The concentration of all the elements except Fe and Mn were found far well within the permissible limits of WHO, thus pointing to the unpolluted source of water supply in the area. The concentration of Fe is higher in eight samples whereas Mn is on the higher side in twelve samples during post-season. Overall, all the elements show higher concentrations during post season owing to the less intensity of rainfall. Overall, the water in the area is safe for various purposes, but the source and contamination levels of Fe and Mn needs to be evaluated in detail. Moreover, appropriate use of law and regulations and effective water management is required amid rising population to preserve the quality of this resource for future generations.

Concussion knowledge assessment and educational intervention in parents of youth football players

Sports related concussions have become a major topic within the pediatric community. This project's aim was to address gaps in care by providing parents of youth football players with a concussion educational tool. Pre and post season assessments were performed to analyze both baseline parental concussion knowledge and any possible application of gained knowledge. The project's purpose was twofold: first, to test the hypothesis that there would be a significant improvement in knowledge score post intervention, and second, to introduce concussion education to parents where previous education did not exist.

Examination Of Landing Error Scoring System Scores For Division 1 Basketball Players

The injuring of the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) is one of the most prevalent sports related knee injuries to occur in athletics, specifically female athletes. PURPOSE: To examine differences in LESS (Landing Error Scoring System) scores between frontcourt and backcourt, male and female NCAA Division 1 basketball players and to measure any changes in LESS scores between the beginning and end of the season. METHODS: Participants were 24 Division 1 basketball athletes (10 females, 14 males). Participation for the initial LESS screen prior to the season was 24 participants, but only 15 completed the postseason LESS screen (12 males, 3 females). These losses in participants were due to team departures, injuries, and NCAA restrictions on team activities post season. They completed a LESS screen (three consecutive jumps per screen) while being filmed in the frontal and sagittal plane and these videos were analyzed using a visual analysis computer system (Dartfish). The clinician examined the torso, feet, knees, and hips in the frontal and sagittal plane and assigned the athlete a score based on the landing performance. Athletes who scored above five points indicated an increased risk for an ACL injury. These screens were scored by a researcher using the LESS scoring sheet determined by Padua and then analyzed using an ANOVA 2x2 repeated measures test in SPSS to test for statistical significance. Statistical results were considered significant if they had a p-value ≤ .05. RESULTS: There were no statistically significant difference in LESS scores between position (p=0.650) or gender (p=0.904), but there was a significant decrease in preseason LESS scores versus postseason LESS scores for men and women (p ≤ 0.001). Preseason men LESS scores averaged 6.30 ± 1.31 and women averaged 6.38 ± 1.63. Postseason LESS scores for men averaged 5.47 ± 1.09 and women averaged 6.44 ± 0.84. CONCLUSIONS: This sample of Division 1 basketball athletes’ LESS scores did not seem to differ based on gender or position which could conclude that the athletes training regiments may be similar to each other and not determined by ACL risk, gender, or positions. The significant decrease in preseason LESS scores to postseason LESS scores could be attributed to the similar training regiments.

Differences In Sleep Quality In Elite Youth Athletes During And After The Competitive Season

PURPOSE: Our study investigated the differences in sleep architecture and health in and out of a competitive season. METHODS: Nine competitive youth athletes between the ages of 12 and 16 who compete for either the tumbling and trampoline team or the diving team were recruited for this study. Data was collected for 3 consecutive nights during the competition and for 3 consecutive nights during post season. Data was then analyzed using the Sleep Profiler™ scoring software. All data is expressed as Mean +/- SEM. RESULTS: Mean nocturnal pulse was statistically different from in season versus post season (p = 0.049, +/- ; 66.8 ± 9.6 bpm in season versus 61.7 ± 6.3 bpm post season). Sleep efficiency, WASO, and spindle duration were all not statistically different from in season to post season. Sleep latency, REM, and NREM sleep though not statistically different from in season to post season have a strong correlation. CONCLUSION: These data demonstrate a significant decline in mean heart rate when an athlete moves from competition season to the non-competitive season. These data show that gymnastic training in addition to competition training may lead to deleterious cardiovascular changes. Future studies should elucidate the impact and volume of training a youth athlete undertakes and the benefits and risks on physiological and psychological well-being.

DOES TRAINING ALTER BIOMARKERS OF IRON HOMEOSTASIS IN FEMALE COLLEGIATE ATHLETES RESIDING AT MODERATE ALTITUDE?

Iron deficiency is reported to be more prevalent in female athletes compared to the general population, which can negatively affect athletic performance. Hepcidin (HEP) and erythroferrone (ERY) play a significant role in the homeostatic control of iron, but erythropoietic activity, inflammation, and red cell turnover also influence iron homeostasis. It is unknown whether these factors are altered in female athletes while training at altitude. PURPOSE: To determine how markers of iron homeostasis, including ferritin (fer), hemoglobin concentration (Hb), reticulocytes, HEP, ERY, interleukin 6 (IL6), and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFa), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) and creatine phosphokinase (CPK) change during training in female endurance and team sport athletes residing at moderate altitude. METHODS: We recruited 94 female athletes from the University of Colorado DI cross country (XC; n = 28), nordic (n = 6) and alpine (n = 8) skiing, lacrosse (LAX; n = 35) and soccer teams (n = 17). In addition, 12 full time female college students were recruited as controls. Between 2 to 7 fasted blood samples were collected over a minimum of 3 months. All athletes were provided with oral iron supplements from a certified nutritionist during this period. RESULTS: Average fer and Hb were higher in endurance athletes (fer: 53 ± 30 ng/dL; Hg: 14.6 ± 0.8) compared to team sport athletes (31 ± 19; 13.8 ± 0.8) and controls (18 ± 9; 13.9 ± 1.1). Fer remained stable over time for all groups except LAX, who decreased by 20 ng/dL post season. HEP was higher in endurance (36.6 ± 60.3 ng/dL) compared to team sport athletes (18.0 ± 12.0), but there were no differences between groups for ERY (overall average: 10.1 ± 50.8 ng/dL); neither HEP or ERY changed significantly over time. In LAX, soccer, and nordic, IL6 and TNFa were lower than XC and remained stable over time; however, IL6 and TNFa started higher in XC and decreased over time. All teams except nordic showed fluctuations in LDH and CPK over the training cycle, but there were no differences between groups for these parameters or percent reticulocytes for any groups. CONCLUSION: Endurance athletes had higher Hb, fer, and HEP. While IL6 and TNFa were higher in XC athletes, other biomarkers of iron homeostasis tended to not be different between groups, although some parameters fluctuated over time.

Seasonal changes in wildland firefighter fitness and body composition

Hiking with a pack is the highest-intensity task that wildland firefighters (WLFFs) perform during sustained activities related to wildland fire suppression. Firefighters perform this and other tasks together as a crew; this provides a unique model to evaluate select physical and physiological changes in members of working crews over a fire season during extended operations. The objective of this study was to evaluate changes in peak aerobic fitness (VO2peak), sustainable aerobic fitness at the ventilatory threshold (VO2vt) and body composition over a 5-month wildland fire season. WLFFs from four crews (55 males, 10 females) participated in a maximal graded exercise treadmill test and body composition evaluation pre- and post season. VO2peak values and variance did not change across the fire season (pre=3.96±0.65, post=3.96±0.69Lmin−1, not significant). VO2vt average decreased slightly while variance decreased greatly within each crew (pre=37.5±7.0, post=35.4±2.3mLkg−1 min−1, P&amp;lt;0.05). There was an improvement in VO2vt in initially less-fit WLFFs and a VO2vt decrease in initially more-fit WLFFs. WLFFs lost fat mass (−1.56±−1.06kg, P&amp;lt;0.01) and fat-free mass (−0.38±−1.24kg, P&amp;lt;0.05). Post-season VO2vt values were the same as the higher range of the documented metabolic cost of uphill load carriage and reveal a unique group adaptation to extended physical demands.

Factors Influencing Donation Behavior: The Role of Seasonal Effects

The aim of this research is to better understand the factors that influence donor behavior regarding monetary donations and how those factors are applicable within an eastern context. More specifically, this study focused to measure the effect of religious occasions like Ramadan on donor generosity and behavior in a majority Muslim society. For this, a cross sectional survey was conducted on 200 respondents from Karachi, Pakistan by means of close ended questionnaire. The same survey was conducted at two different intervals, one before Ramadan and one afterwards. peoples’ sentiments are heightened during the donation season and they feel more strongly for the less fortunate during the donation season. Such feelings motivate people to engage in activities that are related to charity or helping other. When comparing correlation results for pre and post-season, we can see that the number of variables with a correlation value of 0.4 have increased from 49 to 84, which is almost double. This shows that there are more significant variables having an impact on donation behavior in post-season than pre-season. The regression results provide evidence that peoples’ sentiments are heightened during the donation season and they feel more strongly for the less fortunate during the donation season. Moreover, the regression analysis suggests that altruism, empathy and forgiveness are the most significant variables under the psychological factors that have a significantly positive impact on donors’ behavior. According to the overall results of both pre-season and post season, social class, marital status and educational level under the demographic factors had a significantly positive impact on monetary donations. Overall, there is low to moderate impact of demographic factors on the donations. The results showed that donation seasons like Ramadan have a major impact on donor behavior.