Post-reform Russia Research Articles

On the History of Religious Education in Russia in the Second Half of the Late 19th — Early 20th Century (Pobedonostsev, Rachinsky, Ilminsky)

The article examines the views and the work of S. A. Rachinsky and N. I. Ilminsky, the prominent religious enlightenment fi gures in the second half of the 19th century. The former had created a network of church schools for the common people in his estate Tatevo in Smolensk province and its environs, and spent a number of years teaching there. The latter in 1872–1891 held the position of a Director in Kazan Seminary for Teachers of Non-Russian Origin — the central educational institution of the missionary type in the Volga region, aimed at maintaining Orthodoxy among the Christianized peoples of the area. Both educators received the support of K. P. Pobedonostsev, the prominent statesman, publicist and notionalist, one of the leaders of the conservative camp and the chief prosecutor of the Holy Synod. The activists of the religion-based primary education shared the views of specifi c conservative populism based on the idea of common people possessing a set of values that could potentially prevent the society from social upheavals (such as simplicity, patriarchal relations, loyalty to traditions, true religiosity). Rachinsky’s and Ilminsky’s initiatives were aimed at preserving such qualities among the Russian peasantry and the “smaller” nations of the Volga region — social groups that, according to the educators, had managed to stay most aloof from the destructive tendencies of ideological and political development of the second half of the 19th century. Such views in many respects corresponded to the ideas of Pobedonostsev. The famous conservative shared the belief of Rachinsky and Ilminsky that the cause of upheavals that engulfed the post-reform Russia had been the excessive development of individualism and the desire to reconstruct the historically established way of life according to abstract theoretical principles, and that the counterbalance to these phenomena could only be found in the moods of the common people. Rachinsky’s and Ilminsky’s work became a noticeable phenomenon of public life in Russia in the second half of the 19th — early 20th century, and refl ected its important features.

Konstantin Leontiev against the Background of Byzantism and “the Eastern Confederation”

The article is devoted to the biography and socio-political views of K. N. Leontiev, the great Russian notionalist and publicist of the second half of the nineteenth century. The article discusses the evolution of Leontiev’s views. The emphasis is put on Leontiev’s ideas about byzantism as the foundation of Russia’s potential historical “longevity” and about “the Eastern Union” — a confederation, which, from his point of view, should include Orthodox and Slavic peoples, as well as many peoples of the Asian continent. The methodology of this review paper is based on the principles of science, historicism and objectivity. The research was based on the methods of comparative historical analysis, immersion into the ideological atmosphere of the time in which K. N. Leontiev had lived, and biographical analysis with elements of psychological research, which allowed to understand and reveal some fundamental aspects of his socio-political views. The article reviews and analyzes the literary heritage of the notionalist, including his journalism, fi ction and letters. K. N. Leontiev was one of “the pioneers” who had introduced the concept of byzantism into the socio-political discourse of postreform Russia. He nurtured great hopes that the Byzantine principles would allow Russia to outlast Western Europe by a long time — ultimately for a whole cultural and state epoch, i.e. for 1000–1200 years. The notionalist had generated these hopes in the fi rst half of the 1870s. However, K. N. Leontiev stopped counting on such a long period of Russia’s historical longevity towards the end of his earthly journey. An appeal to the biography and views of this notionalist, to his ideas about byzantism, “the Eastern Confederation”, Orthodoxy and the problem of the Church allows us to signifi cantly more accurately, sharper and deeper assess the catastrophic results of the 20th century for our country, the civilizational, spiritual, metaphysical, historical essence and the signifi cance of revolutions that befell it, as well as the period of the communist rule, and to outline potential ways for Russia to get out of the diff icult situation in which it has found itself in the current post-Soviet years.

Urban Censuses in Post-Reform Russia: Analytical Traditions and Practices

This article analyses the historiography of using late Imperial Russian city censuses. The past three decades of historical urban studies in Russia have made such an urban census data study necessary. The city census materials are a more reliable source than the official statistics comparable with national census data. The authors analyse publications related to the urban census history and the implied original methodological solutions for using city census data. The article reconstructs the chronology of historiographic trends, highlighting the regional research traditions. The classification of publications according to thematic and methodological characteristics makes it possible to determine the main directions of the development of source studies. The authors argue that the disciplinary focus of specific studies with reference to census results gradually shifted from purely demographic to historical. The research proves that the country’s history conditioned the development of historiography and its research problems. The pre-revolutionary tradition focused on the practical use of census results and the description of the methodological component. Academic generalising historiography was just emerging. Due to the communist ideology that did not encourage local studies during Soviet times, the use of urban censuses decreased, but source studies reached a qualitatively new level of analysis. The main trend of current historiography is the increased attention to censuses of provincial cities. Specific historical work based on city census data, including such unique components as spatial referencing, has become a notable practice. The historiographic tradition of studying city censuses was formed in both capitals and Western Siberia, while the Crimean school is currently forming.

Practice in the Pedagogical Class of the Barnaul First Women's Gymnasium in the Beginning of the 20th Century

Modernization, which consisted in the transition from feudalism to capitalism in post-reform Russia, had a significant impact on education. Due to the fact that the Russian Empire was a classic world economy with a large city at its center, it varied in the development of different territories. In the Tomsk Province, as well as in the center of the country, there was a large city — Tomsk, and smaller cities in the same way included the surrounding territories in their sphere of economic and socio-cultural influence. In order to replenish the staff, pedagogical classes were organized in gymnasiums. They were of particular relevance for Siberia, where there was only one university at the beginning of the 20th century. Detailed sources remained on the pedagogical class of the Barnaul First Women's Gymnasium. In this regard, it is relevant to study this topic on the materials of this gymnasium. The preserved protocols of the trial lessons contain information about the requirements for teachers and students in pedagogical class. The experience of prerevolutionary gymnasiums can be useful in our time.

Did а Smolensk Peasant Want to be a Village Headman?
 (To the Question of Peasant Self-government in Smolensk Governorate)

The article considers the status of the village headman in the system of peasant self-government of the Smolensk Governorate in the post-reform period. The main attention is paid to the social position of the village headman in the peasant community and his attitude to the duties of the official of the peasant self-government and the peasants’attitude to him.
 According to Russian legislation, the village headman was at the head of the village society, he performed administrative and police functions. In this regard, the district presences often received complaints about village headmen related to drunk-
 enness, arbitrariness and embezzlement of public money. Despite the low salary and a large amount of work, the village headmen faithfully performed their duties, and many complaints received against them in the presence were not confirmed and were
 due to the legal illiteracy of the peasants themselves. Confirmed complaints were punished, as a rule, with a 7-day arrest under the volost administration. By such a measure, the county administration exercised control over the activities of village
 headmen and maintained law and order in the village.
 The author draws a conclusion that the modernization processes, in particular, the decomposition of the community, that took place in post-reform Russia, influenced the change in the position of the village headman.

Идеи нравственного развития личности в педагогическом наследии В. Я. Cтоюнина

Russian teachers when considering the problems of the spiritual and moral formation of a person, often address the theoretical heritage of the past. One of the outstanding representatives of the national pedagogy of post-reform Russia was Vladimir Yakovlevich Stoyunin, in the second half of the 19th century. At the present stage of the development of pedagogical science, the views of the scientist on solving the problems of finding and forming the ideal of the spiritual and moral growth of the individual, as well as determining the specific content of the moral education of the child, are of particular importance. The article presents an overview of the pedagogical views of V.Ya. Stoyunin on issues of spiritual and moral education of children of preschool and primary school age. The relevance of the scientist's ideas about the components of the moral education of the individual through the aspiration for self-improvement and the moral ideal is shown. The role of the Christian doctrine of faith in the moral upbringing of the child is determined and comprehended. The author of the article focuses on description of grades of a moral personality and the conditions for their growth, developed by V.Ya. Stoyunin in a detail.The aim of the article is to study the pedagogical ideas of V.Ya. Stoyunin about the formation of ideal of spiritual and moral development of an individual to identify approaches to the problem of professional and personal growth of teachers. As a result, the pedagogical views of V.Ya. Stoyunin on problem of spiritual and moral education of children in the period of preschool and primary school ages, his pedagogical recommendations on development of positive and leveling negative personal qualities of pupils have been classified. The position of the scientist on the issue of personal qualities of teachers, which have a significant impact on growth of spiritual sphere of the child, is presented. The attention is focused on Stoyunin’s understanding of personal moral qualities as the fulfillment the basic Christian ethical norms - Christian commandments by teachers.

The genesis of the Russian intelligentsia

The article presents an analysis of the two-century development of the Russian intelligentsia, traces the transformation of views and ideas due to historical and socio-cultural foundations. The Russian intelligentsia is regarded as a very special phenomenon in the world, whose historical significance and basic idea are determined by the relationship with the state. It is proved that the main driving force of the development of the Russian intelligentsia changed depending on the political and ideological regime. Much attention is paid in the article to the understanding of the phenomenon of the Russian intelligentsia in the present reality, traditional and acquired features in this historical period are considered. Its role in the formation of value orientations of modern society is analyzed. The author suggests that in the post-reform Russia of the XXI century there is no conceptual unity in the awareness of the "Russian intelligentsia". The intelligentsia itself to a greater extent today does not see itself as a recognized and clearly defined social group, its self-consciousness is fragmented and contradictory. The conclusion is made that the ideological form of the Russian intelligentsia was and remains its alienation from the state and hostility to it, brought up on abstract enlightenment schemes supplemented by cosmopolitanism and globalization, the modern intellectual continues to suffer from the lack of a healthy national identity. Today, when time dictates the need to move to a fundamentally new type of civilizational development, where the key question of the values that set the guidelines for this transition arises again, it is the intelligentsia, as a generator of the thought field, as two centuries ago, can play a major role.

Volost Clerks in Judicial Bureaucracy: The Myths and Reality of Post-Reform Russia

Historiography has formed polar assessments of the activity carried out by members of the system of local (volost) self-government in the post-reform period of the Russian Empire. Working within the paradigm of historical anthropology, the author tries to analyse the activity of volost clerks in court through the study of analytical reports made by governors about the system of peasant selfgovernment. The study focuses on previously unpublished confidential reports of governors to the ministers of Internal Affairs P. A. Valuev in 1863–1864 and D. A. Tolstoy in 1883–1884. Most of these documents are now kept in the funds of the local administration department of the Ministry of Internal Affairs (1291) and the office of the Ministry of Internal Affairs (1282) of the Russian State Historical Archive. Governors had a rather negative idea of volost clerks, attributing most of the problems of local government to the low quality of clerk personnel, who were prone to theft, bribery, and deceit. In the early 1860s, the governors dealt with difficult issues of administrating rural areas and offered promising “recipes” of modernisation of the whole system of peasant self-government and attracting young well-educated clerks to the service. However, two decades later, questions about the reorganisation of volost clerks disappeared from the reports, and nonobjective criticism dominated the secret messages of the governors, who seemed to be eager to delegate all such problems of self-government to the lower-ranking officials who worked directly in volost councils. Despite critical assessments, regional officials realised the significance of well-educated clerks who recorded court proceedings, which allowed peasants to appeal against sentences in a court of cassation. Volost justice, which occupied a special place in the system of the Russian jurisdiction, gradually uncovered the multifaceted world of traditional law, because it was Russian volost clerks who gradually, year after year, created one of the most important mass sources, the decisions of volost courts reflecting the course of court hearings. This fact facilitated the gradual incorporation of usual law post-reform institutions into the system of local judicial bodies, which worked in post-reform Russia based on positive law.

Masculinity development in civil educational institutions of post-reform Russia (on the basis of noble memoirs)

The paper, based on the memoirs of the nobles - graduates of gymnasiums and colleges, deals with the features of masculinity development in civilian educational institutions of pre-revolutionary Russia. The reform of education in the second half of the 19th century was due to the training of new professional personnel. Educational institutions became the center of civic education. Moral character and discipline were a fundamental aspect in the process of education. The choice of an educational institution for young men and their parents was an important step for a successful career. Hazing is characteristic of both military educational institutions and civilian ones. Physical training within the walls of civilian educational institutions was also given attention. For young noblemen, the manifestation of masculinity consisted primarily in serving their country in the state, scientific and teaching fields. The years spent at an educational institution were perceived by future men in different ways. The authorities and the teaching staff taught the foundations of humanism, patriotism and humanity to their students. But the work of a teacher and educators at a civilian educational institution was not easy. However, the all-class education showed that the nobility was losing its supremacy, but despite this, it formed a sense of tolerance among young nobles.

Epidemic and sanitary charts and tables of the second half of the XIX century as the “health passports” for Russian territories

The title of this article reproduces the intentions of the creators of the health cards and the hopes of their modern viewers. Judging by the statements, they wanted to see and show the state of the sanitary and epidemiological situation in the Russian Empire and wanted to do it as reliably and clearly as possible. The article’s authors asked themselves a question: have these desires and hopes come true, that is - are now the tables of sanitary statistics and disease maps “health passports” of various administrative and territorial units of the Russian Empire? Can historians use them as reliable evidence? In order to answer this question, it was necessary to reconstruct then existing system for recording and collecting data on infectious patients, diseases and pathogenicity, ways of their aggregation and representation. Only then would it be possible to find out how these data were applied to conditional terrain images, why either manufactured terrain plans or an administrative map of the empire were used, what was visible and what was in the dark zone. The article’s authors found that the resources available in post-reform Russia did not make it possible to make the collection of sanitary statistics total for the entire territory timely, and even more so to organise a retest of practical information. The supply of information depended on the density of the network of medical institutions in the empire and doctors’ ideas about the value of such information. This circumstance ensured fragmented, multi-temporal and spatial asymmetry in showing the sanitary condition of the Russian Empire and the morbidity of its inhabitants. On this basis, medical historians are advised to read these mediums in the reverse perspective: high morbidity rates should be read as evidence of well-organised medical care (i.e. relative epidemic well-being) and vice versa.

Saint Petersburg at the Forefront of Demographic Transition in Russia

In post-reform Russia, a demographic transition began — a replacement of the traditional type of population reproduction with the modern one. A significant part of the population had rationalized demographic behavior; demographic indicators had improved; the efficiency of population reproduction had increased; intra-family relations had been humanized; and individual birth control had been developed — mainly in cities. The demographic transition began earlier than is commonly thought — among the townspeople of the Saint Petersburg province, where obvious signs of birth control and a decrease in mortality and marriage were already revealed in the first half of the 19th century. The province was in the lead because it was the most urbanized and one of the most cosmopolitan, and Saint Petersburg was the most cosmopolitan city in Russia, which had intensive economic and cultural ties with the West, where demographic transition had already begun at the end of the 18th century in France. In the second half of the 19th century, it spread among the entire urban population, and at the turn of the 19th–20th centuries — among the entire rural population of Russia, but to varying degrees in individual provinces. Demographic indicators had improved because of the progress of medicine and sanitation, the expansion of free medical care, an increase in the cultural level of the population, a change in demographic mentality, and the beginning of birth control, as well as due to an increase in the standard of living of the general population.

THE CONCEPT OF 'KUTEYNIK' IN RUSSIAN LITERATURE

The article is dedicated to the notion of 'kuteynik', which spread around post-reform Russia. Explanatory, historical, dialect and other dictionaries, fiction literature, publicistic works and ego-documents are used as sources. Several concurrent processes associated with the evolution of this term in the 16th — 20th centuries are analyzed: the switch from neutral semantics to pejorative and the occasional return to neutral; its transition from church lexicon to vulgar, then to literary and at last to archaic language; the expansion of its meaning — from a certain churchman who cooked 'kutia' to all the lower-tier clerics and then to all clergy and the people with clerical roots. The history of this notion is analyzed in detail for the first time, not only in linguistic terms, but also in connection with social processes. The period of expansion of the term 'kuteynik' as pejorative (18th — early 20th centuries) was the time of clergy’s establishment as a class with hereditary traditions and isolated higher stratum (priests) and lower stratum (deacons and lower clerics) within it. Nobles, peasants and clerics used the notion of 'kuteynik' in different meanings. For the first two groups it was a pejorative term (for different reasons) and a marker of exclusion, while clerics could use it both as pejorative and as a neutral word. The author assumes that hereditary mechanisms created a demand for pejoratives that shifted the focus from the spiritual, pastoral clerical service to specific foods, It concentrated on everyday life, which had its specifics in the homogeneous social environment and was is contrast with the traditions of other strata.

The award promotion for the members of the accounting and loan committees at the branches of the State Bank of Vladimir Province

This article is devoted to the award promotion for the members of the accounting and loan committees at the branches of the State Bank of Vladimir Province. The consequences of the reforms of Emperor Alexander II included the development of the Russian economy and the formation of a commercial and industrial bourgeoisie. Within it, stable and large industrial dynasties arose. For many representatives of these dynasties in post-reform Russia, the established reputation meant honest businessmen who valued their position in society and sought to increase their merits before it. It is to this category of entrepreneurs that the State Bank of the Russian Empire drew attention to during the organisation of the accounting and loan committees for the development of lending of industry and trade in the post-reform period. This decision of the State Bank served as the basis for the formation of the future institute of public-private partnership in the national economy of the Empire. This topic has already been developed in the research activities of the authors of the article. In this publication, it is viewed through the system of the state awards, as a form of recognition of the merits of the entrepreneurs of Vladimir Province in successful cooperation with the branches of the State Bank in Vladimir and Ivanovo-Voznesensk. For their useful activities, the State Bank presented the members of the committees to be awarded with various awards – the civil medals for the wearing on the neck or the chest, the orders on the ribbons, the coronation medals and the honorary titles. The practice of the presenting of the members of the committees to the awarding of the medals and orders is confirmed by examples from the documents of the State archives of Vladimir and Ivanovo regions. The conclusion about the work of the accounting and loan committees at the branches of the State Bank on the basis of the institution of the state-private partnership is drawn.

IMPLEMENTATION OF SOCIAL JUSTICE AND HUMANISM PRINCIPLES IN THE PROFESSIONAL LEGAL ACTIVITY OF VASILY KONSTANTINOVICH MAGNITSKY

Vasily Konstantinovich Magnitsky (1839–1901) is a researcher of the culture and life of the peoples living in the Volga-Ural region, a public figure, an educator, a lawyer. A number of works were written about Magnitsky’s life and work. The articles published at different times contained mainly biographical information and covered certain areas of the researcher’s scientific interests. Meanwhile, the issues of Magnitsky’s worldview formation, his views on the social reality of post-reform Russia and the study of his legal activities were almost bypassed. The paper attempts to analyze the little-studied aspects of the professional activity of the judicial investigator of the Cheboksary uyezd second district, Vasily Konstantinovich Magnitsky. The methodological basis of the study was the method of complex historical analysis (for studying facts and phenomena in the dynamics of their development), as well as methods of problem-chronological and comparative analysis, on the basis of which the main directions of legal practice were studied. The research is based on previously unpublished materials from the funds of the State Historical Archive of the Chuvash Republic and the Scientific Archive of the Chuvash State Institute of Humanities, as well as data obtained from open sources. The lawyer Vasily Konstantinovich Magnitsky was a bright representative of the generation of the liberal reforms era. In his early youth, Vasily Magnitsky developed beliefs about the role of knowledge and science in human life. The desire to provide benefit for people, to put into practice all his knowledge and experience prompted him to become a graduate in law. Studying law at the university influenced his worldview, professional and scientific activities. Vasily Konstantinovich’s professional activity took place during the years of the reform in the Russian judicial system. The formation of Magnitsky’s personality and his evolution as a human rights activist in the classical sense of the word are inextricably linked with the liberal era of the sixties. According to his views, he was a consistent supporter of justice and humanism ideas, which largely determined his legal practice. As a lawyer, a judicial investigator of Cheboksary uyezd second district, Magnitsky consistently and firmly defended the need to respect the rights of an individual. Protesting against violation of this principle, he often became the object of persecution. Vasily Konstantinovich was critical of the post-reform Russian judicial system, and advocated its further democratization. He drew the attention of the public (including in publications) to the topical problems of judicial proceedings. The role of Magnitsky in high-profile criminal trials (the Multan case) of the second half of the XIX century is noted. Vasily Konstantinovich, along with the performance of official duties, led an active and fruitful work on the study of legal life. The materials collected by Magnitsky are of great value for the study of the customary law of the Chuvash.

Cooperation of small rural commodity producers in post-reform Russia: 
 factors and conditions

In this article, the authors, based on the principles of historicism and objectivity, using the statistical method and a systematic approach, analyzed the first steps in the development of cooperative societies in the rural environment using the example of the Volga region provinces. The factors and conditions were identified, the totality of which influenced the rate of spread and development of cooperative forms of management in the peasant environment during the post-reform period. This is, firstly, the urgent economic need for the peasant in inexpensive credit: the lack of financial resources forced them to borrow from usurers at a high interest rate; secondly, the efforts of representatives of the aristocracy, intelligentsia and zemstvos to draw attention to this problem, to promote and demonstrate the first experiences of cooperative work; thirdly, the actions of the state to create and develop cooperative legislation. The authors analyze examples of cooperative endeavors that were initiated by the most enlightened people of their time; trace the activities of the zemstvo in the dissemination of cooperative ideas in the peasant environment, the promotion of cooperative knowledge, assistance in opening cooperative partnerships and the provision of initial loans to peasants by rural credit and savings and loan associations; state measures at the legislative level to activate peasant self-help. The analysis of all the above factors in the development of cooperative societies in the peasant environment allowed the authors, following the ups and downs of the processes described, to draw a conclusion about their interaction and influence on the development of the cooperative movement in Russia. In zemstvo and state circles, an understanding has been formed that without the inclusion of peasants in a market economy, it is impossible to develop the infrastructure of the agricultural sector. At the same time, the authors are convinced that without the gradually emerging objective conditions, all these efforts would hardly have been justified.

Images of Relations between Nobility and Peasantry in Russian Liberal Literature in Late 19<sup>th</sup> — Early 20<sup>th</sup> Centuries

The article is devoted to the peculiarities of the representation of relations between the nobility and the peasantry in Russian liberal thought at the cusp of XIX—XX centuries. A review of the existing historiography on the problem is carried out, the main attention is paid to the emerging from the middle 1980s the traditions of studying the liberal intelligentsia in Russia and the peculiarities of the relationship between the “educated minority and the peasant world”, an analysis of the latest scientific literature is presented. Special attention is paid to the main research approaches to the study of the topic, microhistorical, positional and other approaches, the concept of “new local history” is highlighted and the need for their complex use is declared. The results of a comparative analysis of various groups of sources are presented: reminiscence and memoirs, periodicals, statistical materials, correspondence. The question is raised about the differences in the self-identification of the Russian nobility, as well as in the mutual representations of the two most important estates of post-reform Russia. The novelty of the study is seen in the fact that, on the basis of new methodological approaches, several images of relations between the nobility and the peasantry have been identified at the cusp of XIX—XX centuries: the image of the “new entrepreneurial type”, “guardianship” and “preservation of traditions”, conventionally “lordly”, as well as the image of “free action”; their distinctive characteristics are given. The proposed classification is due to the main ideas of the Russian nobility about the peasants in the context of the institutionalization of liberal ideology.

Bank Operations and Economic Daily Life of Post-Reform Russia

The historiography of post-reform Russia has been enriched with a new valuable book, which demonstrates the important all-Russia processes using materials locally available. The main finding of the monograph is identification of the role that banks play not as credit institutions, but as accounting companies (since wire-transfers are highly-demanded amongst merchants). It was emphasized that special checking accounts were very important for short-term loans of local entrepreneurs (that were not connected with stock market speculations). The statistics of bank operations was used to illustrate the significance of railways for development of industry and commerce. Finally, the book offers new prospects for further research: some data suggest that in the early 20th century the notes-backed lending penetrated those sections of urban population, which were excluded as before.

THE PROBLEM OF SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC LIFE OF THE REFORMED HOUSE MANAGEMENT IN THE WORKS OF A.N. ENGELGARDT AS A TOOL FOR SOLUTIONS UNDER THE CONDITIONS OF ECONOMIC UNCERTAINTY

Within the framework of the article, a study was conducted on the problem of the socio-economic life of the post-reform landowner economy in the works of A. N. Engelhardt. It was established how much the population is aware of the specifics of the historical development of post-reform Russia, what is the significance of the contribution of A. N. Engelhardt to the development of the village, in particular, the landlord economy, how strong, in the opinion of local residents, is the role of the memorial source «Letters from the Village» in modern agronomy how they see the concept of «mining» in modern realities, is their definition similar to the definition of the second half of the 19th century. Within the framework of the article, a study was conducted on the problem of socio-economic life of the post-reform landlord economy in the works of A. N. Engelhardt. It was established how much the population is aware of the specifics of the historical development of post-reform Russia, what is the significance of AN’s contribution. Engelhardt in the development of the village, in particular, the landlord economy, as, according to local residents, a strong role of the source memoir «Letters from village» in modern agriculture, as they see the concept of «practicing» in the current situation, is similar whether their definition with the definition of second half of the XIX century.

“On the proper keeping of linen and clothes”: organization of laundry in urban noble-intellectual families of Russia in the second half of the 19th — early 20th century

The article is aimed at characterization of the ways of laundry organization in the urban noble-intellectual families of post-reform Russia, identification of the extent of innovations in this area, and of the degree of transition of this activity from the field of domestic labour to social production. The sources of the research include paperwork of laundry facili-ties, statistical data, numerous housekeeping manuals and instructions for laundry organization, memoirs, diaries and house books of urban nobles, especially noble women, and, finally, fiction and publicistic writings of this period. The study follows a methodological approach that combines research methods characteristic for the history of everyday life (first of all, historical reconstruction method), the theory of sociocultural dynamics, and the theory of “topochron”. The author concludes that, despite the significant increase of personal participation of educated housewives in household chores, which took place at the end of the 19th — beginning of the 20th century, this change did not extend to laundry, which was completely delegated to a special person — laundress. The employee herself could act as a single-family domestic servant, a worker who served in a laundry establishment or an independent day laborer who offered her ser-vices to all concerned. Moreover, the first group — laundresses — domestic servants — was extremely rare in the post-reform period. Washing could be carried out both “at the owners’ home”, and “on the side”. “Home washing”, which provided a theoretical opportunity for the employer to control the employee’s activities, was regarded as more preferable, both in terms of service quality and price. Active development of the laundry networks in the late 19th — early 20th century, some of which used machine washing, had little impact on lives of educated citizens. The laundries were oriented, first of all, to work with institutions, and among the “citizens” their services were mainly used by small noble-intellectual families who did not have an opportunity to invite a day labourer. Throughout the post-reform period, handwashing continued to be the most popular way to care for clothing, and the nature of the laundress’s labor re-mained virtually unchanged, still staying “backbreaking” and extremely poorly mechanized.

Проблемы развития юридического образования в России во второй половине XIX — начале XX века

Purpose. The priceless historical legacy that the 19th century left us, including in the development of legal science and education, requires a comprehensive, deep understanding. The trends in the development of legal education are important to follow and take into account the experience of solving the problems faced by postreform Russia when choosing methods and approaches to higher legal education, to consider the opinions of contemporaries about the quality of legal training. Methodology: methods of dialectical logic, historical-legal, historical-dynamic and causal analysis were used. Conclusions. A serious incentive to increase the prestige of legal education was the introduction of an educational qualification for obtaining positions in the new judicial system. At the same time, it was necessary to search for an optimal model for training legal personnel capable of implementing the principles proclaimed by the judicial reform in practice. Attempts were made to find a balance between obtaining fundamental theoretical knowledge and obtaining practical legal skills. Scientific and practical significance. Modern universities that train lawyers face problems that are Largely consonant with those that Russia faced in the second half of the XIX — early XX centuries. This primarily concerns the quality of legal personnel training, the formation of competencies aimed at developing legal thinking, and the readiness to make legal decisions independently. In this regard, the experience of the past can suggest the right approaches when choosing modern standards and teaching models.