Post-mining Areas Research Articles

Unusual conditions for the formation of linear discontinuous deformations triggered by underground mining

The occurrence of linear discontinuous deformations, primarily manifesting as ground steps, is becoming increasingly prevalent in mining and post-mining areas. These deformations present a significant hazard to structures, as there are no effective protective measures currently available. An important aspect of these deformations is that they can occur several decades after mining operations have ceased, making it crucial to understand their causes and conditions of formation. This paper presents a detailed case study of ground step formation that resulted in substantial damage to storage halls. Through comprehensive analyses of geological and mining conditions, combined with rigorous calculations, the study identifies the most likely factors that triggered the deformation. Notably, these factors differ from those commonly cited in the existing literature, providing a novel contribution to the research on this issue. The findings underscore the necessity for continuous monitoring and reevaluation of post-mining areas to mitigate potential risks and develop more effective protective strategies.

Influence of the Depth of Shallow Workings on the Probability of Sinkhole Formation and Determination of the Contribution of Mines to the Resulting Risk

AbstractThis paper presents a broad spectrum of factors that have an impact on the environment once underground mines have been closed, with particular emphasis on hard coal mines. Based on the review of scientific literature and own experience, several types of environmental impacts of closed mines were specified. In the author’s opinion, sinkholes pose the most serious hazard to post-mining areas. A high degree of urbanisation of the Upper Silesian Coal Basin and a wide range of mining operations conducted in the past necessitate the post-mining areas development for construction purposes. However, investing in these areas cannot carry risks and pose a threat to public safety. Therefore, a simplified method of determining the probability of sinkhole formation depending on the depth of a shallow void (excavation) in the rock mass was proposed. An algorithm has also been proposed for determining the contribution of individual mining companies to causing sinkhole hazard, which is of great importance in legal proceedings.

Between Meteorite, Glacier and Rivers—Towards Geotourism Development in Diverse Landscape

The morphogenetic diversity of an area often determines its high geodiversity, which is subsequently used for geotourism. Areas where geotourism is being intentionally developed note the funded impacts resulting from increased interest in the area by tourists. This paper presents a morphogenetically diverse area that has been formed by glacial activity, cosmic factors—meteorite impacts, fluvial factors and anthropogenic factors—especially those related to industrial activities and settlement processes. In this manuscript, we identified and assessed geosites in the diverse landscape of the Poznań region (Poland), as well as analyzed strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats in relation to possible activities aimed at the development of geotourism. The multi-criteria assessment of existing and proposed geosites and SWOT analysis was used by us to assess geotourism development potential in this genetically highly diverse landscape. The work presented here demonstrates that not all formally created geosites by geological institutions are potentially attractive from the point of view of geotourism. The main factors that reduce the attractiveness of geosites are the lack of recreational infrastructure, poor accessibility and low educational values. The spectacularity of geosites is most often determined by their aesthetic value, representativeness, rareness and paleogeographical interest. The Poznań region has a high potential for the development of geotourism due to its valuable sites (Morasko Meteorite Reserve, Dziewicza Hill, post-mining area Szachty, Genius Loci and Ostrów Tumski); however, there is a need to develop a geotourism development strategy in the area. Given the morphogenetic diversity of the study area, there is a need to create a unique landscape geointerpretation center in this part of Europe, with a role in integrating tourism and especially geotourism activities.

Assessing the Effectiveness of Rotation Growing of Industrial Hemp and Alfalfa in Post-Mining Agricultural Reclamation: Using Soil Fauna as an Indicator

The reclamation of post-mining land for agricultural purposes has continued to be a big challenge. Our study concerns the use of soil microfauna (nematodes) and mesofauna (mites and springtails) as indicators of soil quality after 6 years of agricultural reclamation of a post-mining area in west–central Poland. A new method, which involves rotation growing of industrial hemp (H) and alfalfa (A) and incorporating the resulting biomass into the soil, was used to reclaim two sites (5 and 15 years after mining) representing different types of post-mining deposits (clayey and sandy). On each site, two plots were established, where each crop was grown for three years, but in a different order during the rotation cycle (3H3A and 3A3H). The results showed significant differences in the abundance and structure of the fauna communities between 3H3A and 3A3H reclamation practices, as well as between the reclaimed plots and non-reclaimed (NR) plots, where spontaneous succession proceeded. The three animal groups were more abundant in the reclaimed soil compared to the NR soil. The highest densities for nematodes were observed in the 3H3A plots and for the mesofauna in the 3A3H plots. The reclamation practices had a positive effect on groups involved in the regulation of C and N mineralisation, particularly bacterial- and hyphal-feeding nematodes and oribatid mites, and a negative effect on plant-feeding nematodes and euedaphic collembolans. The finding that most of the parameters of the studied biota had values resembling those of agricultural soils after 6 years of reclamation clearly indicates the effectiveness of the applied practices for transforming degraded land into soils that mirror soils under agricultural use.

Screening potential plants in the gold mining area for phytoremediation approach

Abstract Heavy metal waste can be caused by anthropogenic activity. This waste can pollute soil and water far from the source. One of the ways to immobilize the heavy metals is using a plant that can accumulate them. This research aimed to screen potential plants that can be used as remediation agents due to ASGM activity in the post-mining area. This study was conducted at PT Napal Umbar Picung (NUP), Tanggamus Regency, Lampung. The study collected the potential hyperaccumulator plant from contaminated areas. Plant samples were dried at 80°C for three days in a ventilated oven. The dried samples were powdered using the Philips Blender 5000 series into fine-grained sizes. The powder samples were analyzed using X-ray fluorescence (XRF). The highest concentrations of As, Cd, Fe, Hg, Ni, Pb, and Zn in the shoot tissues of ASGM at PT NUP were 285.8 mg/kg, 11.7 mg/kg, 258,320 mg/kg, 501.6 mg/kg, 57.4 mg/kg, 806.2 mg/kg, and 4,520 mg/kg. The results showed that the hyperaccumulator plant of Hg was Alpinia galanga. Christella sp. Chromolaena odorata, Clidemia hirta, Melastoma malabathricum, and Nephrolepis cordifolia. This study can conclude that the plants can be used as a phytoremediation approach to heavy metals contamination such as As, Cd, Fe, Ni, Pb, Zn, and especially Hg.

Habitat-specific allocations of elements in Atriplex lentiformis seeds indicate adaptation to metal toxicity.

Self-sustaining vegetation in metal-contaminated areas is essential for rebuilding ecological resilience and community stability in degraded lands. Metal-tolerant plants originating from contaminated post-mining areas may hold the key to successful plant establishment and growth. Yet, little is known about the impact of metal toxicity on reproductive strategies, metal accumulation, and allocation patterns at the seed stage. Our research focused on the metal tolerant Atriplex lentiformis. Specifically, we examined the effects of toxic metal(loid) concentration in soils on variability in its reproductive strategies, including germination patterns, elemental uptake, and allocation within the seeds. We employed advanced imaging techniques like synchrotron X-ray fluorescence microscopy (2D scans and 3D tomograms) combined with inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry to reveal significant differences in metal(loid) concentration and distribution within the seed structures of A. lentiformis from contrasting habitats. Exclusive Zn hotspots of high concentrations were found in the seeds of the metallicolous accession, primarily in the sensitive tissues of shoot apical meristems and root zones of the seed embryos. Our findings offer novel insights into phenotypic variability and metal tolerance and accumulation in plants from extreme environments. This knowledge can be applied to enhance plant survival and performance in land restoration efforts.

PENGARUH REVEGETASI TERHADAP SIFAT-SIFAT TANAH PADA LAHAN BEKAS TAMBANG TEMBAGA DI NUSA TENGGARA BARAT

Copper mining activities mainly using open-pit techniques, lead to environmental issues such as overburden waste in waste dump areas that have potential to generate acid mine drainage (AMD), which can decrease soil pH and increase heavy metal toxicity. Reclamation efforts, including revegetation using pioneer plants and cover crops are necessary to restore degraded land in waste dump areas. The aim of this research is to analyze soil physical and chemical properties improvement after revegetation on copper post-mining land as an evaluation and to provide recommendations for future reclamation. The research was carried out by analyzing and interpreting laboratory data from soil observations in revegetation areas for the 2016, 2018, 2019 and 2020 planting years, as well as natural forests belonging to PT. Amman Mineral Nusa Tenggara. Revegetation of copper post-mining land does not show a significant improvement in soil physical properties because improving physical properties takes quite a long time, especially in post-mining areas with heavy structural damage. Soil chemical properties analysis shows that revegetation can increase base saturation (BS), cation exchange capacity (CEC), exch-Ca, exch-Mg, and reduce soil Al saturation. In contrast, soil pH, organic-C, total-N, and soil available-P in the revegetation area did not increase as the revegetation age increased. The effect of revegetation appears to be more significant at the age of 2 to 3 years. However, based on the Tukey test, the age of revegetation mostly does not have a significant effect on enhancing soil chemical properties.

Allometric equation of Paraserianthes falcataria (L.) and Anthocephalus cadamba Miq. for estimating carbon stocks

Coal mining can increase land degradation and deforestation, so efforts are needed to ensure land use in post-mining areas. Therefore, mining companies must carry out land reclamation to restore the important function of forests by planting sengon laut (Paraserianthes falcataria (L.)) and burflower tree (Anthocephalus cadamba Miq.). In contrast to mining, which produces emissions and carbon that contribute to global warming, land reclamation helps absorb carbon and produce oxygen for living things. Therefore, a study was carried out to estimate the carbon stocks from reclamation activities at PT. Indobara Borneo. A quantitative approach through Stratified Random Sampling was applied in this study. Carbon estimation is carried out using allometric equations. The allometric equation of Paraserianthes falcataria (L.) is Y = 0.028D2,695, while the allometric equation of Anthocephalus cadamba Miq. is Y = 0.035D2,600. The total carbon stocks for burflower tree plants are 84.51 tons/ha with a CO2 sink potential of 974.73 tons/Ha, while the total carbon stocks for sengon laut plants are 86.18 tons/ha with a CO2 sink potential of 1355.49 tons/ha. The value of CO₂ sink and carbon stock indicates that there are environmental services to restore and improve vegetation.

Influence of Mining on Nutrient Cycling in the Tropical Rain Forests of the Colombian Pacific

Nutrient recycling is a fundamental process for the functioning of tropical forests; however, anthropogenic activities such as mining could affect this process in tropical ecosystems. Given that little is known about the effects of mining on nutrient recycling in tropical forests, the objective was set to evaluate the influence of mining on nutrient cycling in tropical rainforests of the Colombian Pacific. Additionally, the hypothesis that nutrient cycling could be lower in post-mining areas was evaluated. To evaluate the effect of mining on nutrient cycling, permanent plots were established in mature and post-mining forests. In both forests, soil acidity, aluminum (Al), organic matter (OM), total nitrogen (N), available phosphorus (P), magnesium (Mg), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), and effective cation exchange capacity (ECEC) were considered. Likewise, the litter production, decomposition, and accumulation on the ground were determined; additionally, nutrient content and nutrient use efficiency (NUE) were determined. It was observed that mining influenced the nutrient contents of the soil in a different way. It was evident that total N and soil OM were similar in both forests, while the contents of P, K, Ca, Mg, Al, and ECEC available were higher in post-mining. The litterfall production and litter mass accumulation on the ground were greater in post-mining, while litter decomposition was greater in mature forests. In mature forests, there was higher foliar content of N, Ca, and B and, in addition, higher NUE of Ca. However, in post-mining, there was higher leaf content of K, Mg, P, Fe, Cu, Mn, and Zn and, in addition, greater NUE of N, P and K. In conclusion, an increase in post-mining nutrient cycling was noted as a strategy for nutrient conservation, and recovery of the functioning and maintenance of productivity in degraded Pacific ecosystems. Consequently, it is expected that in the future, if mining continues in the region, productivity and nutrient recycling will be altered.

Using Soil Magnetic Susceptibility Proxies to Estimate Overburden Thickness Overlying Ore of Lateritic Soils in Sulawesi Island Indonesia

Sulawesi Island is one of the largest Ni ore producers in Indonesia. It is also expected to be a significant potential source of some critical metals (e.g., Co, Sc, rare-earth elements, and platinum-group elements). However, few studies show the post-mining impact on some heavy metal elements concentrated in this area. Therefore, improving the efficiency and effectiveness of soil organization and its effect on soil reclamation after mining is helpful. This study aimed to determine the accuracy in estimating the thickness of the overburden covering the nickel ore body profile from lateritic nickel post-mining areas by magnetic susceptibility measurements to discrepancy the overall laterite horizon, whereas χLF and χFD are used to distinguish the overburden zona and limonite and saprolite zone. The lateritic profile studied consists of soil formation of Fe-rich material in the Morowali, and Pomalaa block. We also evaluated the chemical element content of the soil and understood the relationship between the magnetic and geochemical properties of the soil. This study reveals the superparamagnetic (SP)-enriched soils indicated with the increase of the FD% values into the upward horizon, where the maximum values of FD are generally found at ranges 1 to 4m, indicating the overburden layers. Meanwhile, in the depth of 4m to 6m, the values of FD vary only slightly in the lower part initiated by the limonite layers, and then > 6m decreases sharply to the bottom, indicating the saprolite layers. The chemical element mobility trends indicate that Fe, Co, Cr, Mn, and Ti increase toward the layers, which is the same pattern as in FD. Due to this, parameters magnetics may also be a new geophysical approach for estimating the distribution of economically valued minerals on lateritic soils. The strong correlation of Co with Fe, Mn, and Cr in all layers indicates the influence of weathering o n these ultramafic rocks. This suggests an increasing trend toward prolonged pedogenesis.

From unseen to seen in post-mining polluted territories: (in)visibilisation processes at work in soil contamination management

In line with EU recommendations, the potential ‘mining revival’ in France focuses on (re)opening mines. In this context, political discussions on post-mining areas have increased, driven by past mismanagements. Scientists are key in these regions, studying contamination, advising policy, and seeking solutions. Based on a case study of phytoremediation research in Saint-Laurent-Le Minier, we explore how lay and expert knowledge intersect. By examining what is hidden and by whom, we unveil research practices and stakeholder dynamics, sparking reflection on the research process while promoting a reflexive approach for researchers. We show research and its application spotlight specific topics (such as soil contamination), select, and make visible certain lay knowledge and local stakeholders and visibilises certain technological choices.

Applying taper function models for black locust plantations in Greek post-mining areas

A key process in forest management planning is the estimation of tree volume and, more specifically, merchantable volume. The ability to predict the cumulative stem volume relative to any upper stem diameter on standing trees or stands is essential for forest inventories and the management of forest resources. In the 1980s, the Hellenic Public Power Corporation (HPPC) started the rehabilitation of lignite post-mining areas in Greece by planting mainly black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia, L.). Today, these plantations occupy an area of approximately 2570 ha, but the stem volume has not yet been estimated. Therefore, we aimed to estimate the over- and under-bark stem volume using taper function models for 30 destructively sampled trees. Of the nineteen calibrated fixed-effects models, Kozak’s (2004) equation performed best for both the over-bark and under-bark datasets, followed by Lee’s (2003) and Muhairwe’s (1999) equations. Two fixed effect models were compared with fitted coefficients from Poland and the United States confirming that the local model fits were better suited, as the foreign model coefficients caused an increase in root mean square error (RMSE) for stem diameter predictions of 13% and 218%, respectively. The addition of random effects on a single-stem basis for two coefficients of Kozak’s (2004) equation improved the model fit significantly at 86% of the over-bark fixed effect RMSE and 69% for the under-bark model. Integrated taper functions were found to slightly outperform three volume equations for predictions of single stem volume over and under bark. Ultimately it was shown that these models can be used to precisely predict stem diameters and total stem volume for the population average as well as for specific trees of the black locust plantations in the study area.

Mucor thermorhizoides—A New Species from Post-mining Site in Sudety Mountains (Poland)

Mucor representatives are mostly rapidly growing cosmopolitan soil saprotrophs of early diverged Mucoromycotina subphylum. Although this is the most speciose genus within the group, some lineages are still understudied. In this study, new species of Mucor was isolated from the post-mining area in southwestern Poland, where soil chemical composition analysis revealed high concentration of hydrocarbons and heavy metals. Phylogenetic analysis based on multigene phylogeny showed that the new isolate clusters distinctly from other Mucor species as a sister group to Mucor microsporus. New species Mucor thermorhizoides Abramczyk (Mucorales, Mucoromycota) is characterized by the extensive rhizoid production in elevated temperatures and formation of two layers of sporangiophores. It also significantly differs from M. microsporus in the shape of spores and the size of sporangia. M. thermorhizoides was shown to be able to grow in oligotrophic conditions at low temperatures. Together with M. microsporus they represent understudied and highly variable lineage of the Mucor genus.

Novel method for determining the time coefficient [formula omitted] in Knothe’s function and disappearance time of deformation increase using SAR data

This paper presents a novel approach to determining the disappearance time of deformation increase after the conclusion of mining activity using Knothe’s time function and persistent scatterer interferometric synthetic aperture radar (PSInSAR). As a result, a method was proposed for determining a parameter of the function, the time coefficient c, using SAR data. The area of study was a strongly urbanised (city centre) post-mining region within the Upper Silesian Coal Basin (USCB), located in central-eastern Europe (Poland), which was characterised by intense hard coal mining that was concluded in 2015. The study analysed ground displacements generated directly after the conclusion of extraction as well as the time after which the rock mass assumes a relatively calm state. The obtained results were validated based on the results of classic geodesic measurements. The average time coefficient c determined by the developed method was 0.84, while the average time coefficient based on classic geodesic measurements was 1.01. So the theoretical disappearance time of deformation increase was, respectively, 5 years and 6 months and 4 years and 7 months. The research revealed that the developed method is helpful in determining the parameter in Knothe’s function and enables a more accurate definition of the disappearance time of deformation increase after the conclusion of extraction. This has great significance in the context of safety and the potential limitation of damage generated as a result of the negative influence of underground mining on the ground surface as well as for the spatial planning of post-mining areas.

Microbial communities of acidic post-mining environments and their use in laterite bioreduction

The biogeochemistry of post-mining areas is important because of their impact on the environment and the possibility of remediating such areas. Such a hostile environment is also a source of acidophilic microorganisms that can dissolve minerals that might be applied in the extractive metallurgy of low-grade oxide ores. Therefore, the study used autochthonic microorganisms isolated from water and sediment samples taken from places affected by acid mine drainage. The acidophiles were isolated under aerobic and anaerobic conditions. Genomic analysis revealed low prokaryotic diversity. The genera with a relative abundance greater than 1% were Acidithiobacillus (39.8-84.2%), Ferrimicrobium (26.4-34.4%), Acidiphilium (8.31-28.8%), and Leptospirillum (9.6-32.1%). Aerobic bacteria were adapted to reduce iron(III) under a nitrogen atmosphere and the presence of elemental sulfur as an electron donor. It was shown that increasing the amount of sulfur (1-5 g) had little effect on the process kinetics. In anaerobic bottom sediments, Sulfobacillus (45.7%) and Acidisphaera (32.7%) predominated. Microorganisms showed the fastest reduction activity when glycerol was used as an electron donor. Four weeks of anaerobic-controlled bioreduction of laterites yielded nickel and magnesium at 33.3% and 77.3%, respectively, which could have potential applications in the processing of laterites.

Evaluation of Land Suitability of The Post-Mine Area for Settlement in The Kuranji Region of Padang City

The increase in population in Padang City is related to the many needs that must be met by the community such as housing or settlement needs. The availability of land that meets the criteria to be used as a settlement location guarantees a decent life for each community. This research aims to evaluate the land suitability of post-mining areas for settlements in the Kuranji area of Padang City. Data collection is done by analyzing the parameters used in determining the ideal settlement area, namely, slope level map, soil type map, erosion hazard, soil texture, flood hazard, and soil carrying capacity. The data that has been obtained is analyzed using the scoring or weighting method to determine the level of land suitability. Based on the calculations and analysis carried out on the evaluation of land suitability for settlements in the Gunung Sarik area, it can be concluded that the post-mining area in the Gunung Sarik area is suitable for settlements with a land suitability level value of 57 which with a land suitability level value of 58.7 - 37.4 is appropriate with details of 6 physical parameters that are met, namely, the level of slope 15.76%; Alluvial soil type, erosion hazard 348.83 tons/day/year, never flooded, fine soil texture (Clay), and has good soil bearing capacity (165 kg/cm 2 ).

Landscape in change – place in uncertainty. A case study of detachment

This paper discusses place-oriented values via actions against unwanted landscape changes reported by the community affected. The case study was based on a post-mining area in the city of Poznań (Poland), now functioning as a naturally valuable ecosystem. The relationships between landscape changes and the local community’s perception of these changes were studied. The results showed that a landscape transformation which is not accepted by the local community can stimulate a sense of loss, specifically, a feeling of detachment from the emotionally valued landscape. Based on this, a conceptual framework of detachment from a place was constructed. In this regard, the findings fill the gap in the case of experiences of solastalgia and topophobia. Different qualitative methods supported the analytical proceedings, such as content analysis, in-depth interviews, case study visits, community observation, field study and exploratory analysis.

RANCANGAN TEKNIS DAERAH TANGKAPAN HUJAN UNTUK MENGURANGI PENGIKISAN BIDANG LERENG DAN MENCEGAH AIR LIMPASAN DENGAN METODE CROSS FALL PADA TEMPAT PENYIMPANAN TANAH PUCUK

Mining activities often cause environmental damage, such as landslides, floods and ecosystem changes. These activities include land clearing, top soil stripping, overburden stripping, coal excavation, coal transport and processing. It is necessary to have an activity as an effort to rehabilitate so that there is no sustainable environmental damage. Therefore topsoil storage must be carried out in order to return the post-mining area to green again. The consideration of replanting ex-mining areas uses a comprehensive environmental management strategy, especially in terms of handling nutrient-rich topsoil. Topsoil is peeled to a thickness of 0.5 – 1 meter using an excavator. Then it is stacked and stockpiled in a place that is safe from mining activities so that later it can be reused in reclamation activities. The purpose of this research is to obtain a technical design on the corner of the storage area to reduce the eroding impact of rain runoff or other mining activities. Where the method used is to calculate the erosion that occurs on each slope where the test is carried out with 4 different slope angles such as 20⁰, 25⁰, 30⁰ and 35⁰. After obtaining the erosion data, the researchers created an ideal design to reduce the impact by considering the balance aspects of the slope and the material itself. Where the recommended angle data obtained to reduce the eroding impact is 25⁰.

Lake bottom relief reconstruction and water volume estimation based on the subsidence rate of the post-mining area (Bytom, Southern Poland)

Mining activity leads to subsidence troughs and permanent changes in water relations, like the formation of anthropogenic reservoirs. In the Upper Silesian Coal Basin (S Poland), their number is so high that the area is called an anthropogenic lake district. Any form of water retention, in the face of climate change, is valuable. However, the problem is the high variability of these lakes, making it challenging to estimate water resources. An example of this type of anthropogenic lake is the Brandka Pond in Bytom. An original method was proposed, consisting of two stages: reconstruction of the lake bottom relief based on the initial state of the area relief in 1994, i.e. at the beginning of the reservoir formation, and the land subsidence rate calculated for this area. Archival cartographic materials and DEMs from LiDAR data were used and processed in the open-source geoinformation software. Orthophoto maps and satellite scenes were also collected to determine changes in the extent of the pond from 1993 to 2019. Bathymetric data obtained in 2019 during sonar measurements on the reservoir was used to verify the calculations. The pond began to form in the early 1990s, and by 2019, it had reached an area of 178,226 m2, a maximum depth of 5.8 m and a capacity of 421,173 m3. The reconstruction method is accurate and suitable for lakes over 2 m deep, and the calculated capacity differs from the bathymetric data by 0.2%.

Carbon stock estimation in post-mining reclamation area of open coal mining in PT Berau Coal, Berau, East Kalimantan

Postmining land reclamation and revegetation activities play an important role in restoring vegetation, degraded land and controlling climate change because CO2 is sinking from the atmosphere due to the impact of mining activities. This study aims to estimate the potential for above-ground and below-ground carbon and CO2 absorption capacity at the Binungan Mine Operations Site (BMO), PT Berau Coal, Berau, East Kalimantan. Vegetation analysis was used to estimate the potential carbon stock and CO2 absorption capacity at plant ages 1-10 years using the purposive sampling method of 5 plots (20 x 20 m) each in the post-mining area studied. Biomass and carbon stocks were estimated using existing allometric models. The results showed 14 tree species from 10 families dominated by Fabaceae. Biomass was estimated at 1.13 - 128.31 Mg ha-1, carbon stocks were 0.53-60.3 Mg ha-1, and CO2 absorption was 1.95 - 221.32 Mg ha-1. Reclamation and revegetation in 10 year-old plants on reclamaied land can restore biomass, carbon stock, and CO2 absorption capacity of 70% from the initial baseline.