Post-independence Period Research Articles

Historical analysis of coffee production and associated challenges in Kenya from 1893 to 2018

Coffee is one of the most important export crops in Kenya, contributing about 22 per cent of the national income and is a source of livelihood for more than 700 000 households. However, despite its immense importance to the Kenyan economy, coffee exports have continued to shrink. This paper explores the introduction and upscaling production of coffee in Kenya from 1893 to 2018 and associated challenges. It assesses the role of white settlers and Kenyans in coffee production during the colonial period (1893-1962) and the post-independence period (1963-2018). This research showcases how a mismatch in policy direction at a local level and insufficient support to coffee farmers in Kenya have led to a downward trajectory of coffee production. The data was collected from secondary sources and was analysed chronologically to historicise coffee production and its associated challenges. The study concludes that the dismal performance of coffee production is partly attributable to coffee prices, marketing channels, coffee financing, coffee regulations, cost of production, management of cooperatives and processing of exported coffee. Thus, it is recommended that the Kenyan government harmonise existing policies regulating the coffee industry in terms of licensing, marketing, and making credit available to farmers.

Intertextuality in Selected Novels of Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o

Postcolonial African fiction has been successful in resisting colonialism and its dehumanizing ideas, which have caused unfathomable physical pain and psychological crises for Africans. While fighting back against the injustices, African writers played a catalyzing role in dismantling the system by creating intertextual connections with different texts from near and beyond. The main objective of this paper is to determine the use of intertexts in selected novels by Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong'o. The article examines three novels from different periods: <i>Weep Not, Child</i> (1964), <i>Petals of Blood</i> (1977), and <i>Wizard of the Crow</i> (2006). The novels are selected purposively, considering the significant contexts of each of the texts. The contexts include the anti-colonial struggles of the early 1960s, the post-independence disillusionment period, and contemporary neocolonialism. The study relies on the notions of intertextuality propagated by Mikhail Bakhtin and Julia Kristeva, for these scholars focus on the connection between text and context. After a close reading of the novels, the study identifies intertexts such as quotations, references, citations, and allusions inserted either to reinforce or criticize the meaning under different local and global contexts. Then, through the textual analysis method, the article determines the significant impact of the inserted texts in the novels. Finally, the analysis demonstrates that the intertexts are used aesthetically to criticize monologic narratives, resist post-independence corrupt political systems, and confront the danger of neocolonialism. Furthermore, the article suggests that studies of the intertextuality of novels across periods depict the predicaments of different times and the role of the elites in raising the consciousness of the masses to respond to these predicaments accordingly.

Trustees of the nation? Business, philanthropy and changing modes of legitimacy in colonial and postcolonial western India

This article presents a historical account of the public lives of philanthropic endeavours that involved business actors in western India, from the late nineteenth century till early decades of the post-independence period. Two cases—that of the traditionally maintained animal shelter-homes called ‘pinjrapoles’ and that of the Tilak Swaraj Fund Trust, founded to aid the nationalist movement in early twentieth century India—are analysed. The article scrutinises through the case of the pinjrapoles how traditionally practiced religious forms of charity came to obtain a wider purchase within the colonial order since the late nineteenth century as public-oriented philanthropic actions and institutions. In considering the history of the Swaraj Fund, the article traces how the politics of accountability interrupted philanthropic institutions and in turn the social standing of business patrons within the fold of Gandhian nationalism and its accompanying models of ‘trusteeship’. In studying these two cases, the article tries to understand how the relationship of western Indian business actors with colonial rule as well as the nationalist movement remained mediated by changing forms of philanthropic endeavours serving emerging modes of legitimacy and their accompanying mandates of publicity.

LAOZI’S PHILOSOPHY: ITS COMPARISON WITH WESTERN THOUGHTS AND APPLICATION ON PAKISTAN-AFGHANISTAN RELATIONS

The complex Pakistan-Afghanistan relations always engage policymakers on both sides of the border. Their concerns towards each other have been changing the socio-political environment intermittently due to internal and external dynamics coupled with historical legacies. This study, therefore, covers the post-independence period, the Soviet Union’s communist influence in Afghanistan, the rise of the Taliban, and the post-9/11 era. It employs Lao Tzu’s philosophy which advocates the overarching features of domestic politics, global governance, and statecraft to address the prevailing intricacies in Pakistan and Afghanistan foreign policies. It discusses vital concepts and approaches of softness, normalness, and actionless action at the individual, state, and system levels while carving out institutionalized foreign policy orientations between the two neighbours. The paper also considers the western thought of realism paradigm through which peace in the region remained elusive. It deliberates upon Lao Tzu’s philosophy which lays down the foundation of the political order in a natural, peaceful and balanced way. Bibliography Entry Mirza, Zahid Latif. 2021. "Laozi’s Philosophy: Its Comparison with Western Thoughts and Application on Pakistan-Afghanistan Relations." Margalla Papers 25 (2): 1-13.

Politique Alimentaire en Algérie : Entre priorités économiques et contraintes sociales

Introduction. From its independence, the Algerian State has opted for a food policy, healthy, balanced, and accessible to all citizens, a policy carried out thanks to a very expensive food subsidy, and massive recourse to imports of basic foodstuffs. These measures have encouraged the increase in the country food dependency to the detriment of the harmonious development of the local agricultural sector, a strategic sector which should produce and guarantee the supply of the population, and meet their basic food needs. Objective. The objective of this study was to provide some objective answers on relevance and limits of food policy in Algeria, a policy that the state monopolizes and orchestrates in a difficult socioeconomic context, and which has proved to be inconsistent, and incapable of achieving the objective of food security targeted by the public authorities. Material and methods. This study was based exclusively on updated statistical, and theoretical data covering the post-independence period of the country (1962-2020). Data were collected from periodic reports and socioeconomic studies carried out by competent and credible bodies in the field. These sources concerned, in particular, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the World Bank (WB), the National Statistics Office (ONS), the National Council for Social Studies (CNES) , the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MADR), and others. These results were obtained through an operation of sampling, collecting and processing quantitative and qualitative information used in the field of quantitative and descriptive statistics. Results. The modest performances achieved in food policy in Algeria were the fruit of a policy of generalized subsidies and massive imports of basic foodstuffs (bread, milk, sugar, and vegetable oils). This ineffective policy did not achieve the objective of food self-sufficiency targeted by the public authorities; costed too dear to the public treasury and survived thanks to the oil rent; promoted the disengagement of the agricultural sector from its food mission and it failed to permanently eradicate the scourge of hunger and undernourishment. Conclusion. Food policy shows itself to be deficient in its actions and objectives. It survives on massive imports of basic foodstuffs in the absence of an effective contribution from the local agricultural sector. It remains very expensive due to the generalization of the subsidy policy. It remains fragile in the face of fluctuations in world oil prices, the main source of its financing.

Role of Archaeological Survey of India For Conservation of Monuments of Ekamra Kshetra In Post-Independence Period

Role of Archaeological Survey of India For Conservation of Monuments of Ekamra Kshetra In Post-Independence Period

Evolution of cities in Borneo: a kaleidoscope of urban landscapes for planning future resilient cities

PurposeThis study aims to examine the trajectory of the urban growth of Borneo by portraying its resilient settlements in the pre-colonial times, tropical sensitive colonial architecture, the built environment of the post–independence period and finally the contemporary city image. This is followed by a comparative study of its major urban centres and determining how globalisation and neoliberalism impact the traditional urban settlements of this island and poses a threat to its rich biodiversity.Design/methodology/approachThis study uses case study research methodology involving selected cities on the Island of Borneo including Kota Kinabalu, Sandakan, Miri and Kuching (Sabah and Sarawak, Malaysia), Bandar Seri Begawan (Brunei), and major cities of the state of Kalimantan, Indonesia. Data collection includes a literature review, content analysis, field assessment and observations. The major research objectives would address past and current issues in the selected urban environment of Borneo. They address the historical evolution of major cities of Borneo, current urban development trends, the deterioration of the traditional urban fabric as a result of post–independence development and later globalisation.FindingsThis study found that the rich cultural tradition and climate-responsive architecture from the past have been discontinued to pave way for fast track and often speculative development. The results contribute in the convergence of existing shortcomings of cities from three nations on Borneo Island in guiding future sustainable urban planning agenda for achieving a resilient city status while reinstating the character and the sense of place. The study expects the recommendations to become prerequisites for future urban planning in sensitive tropical regions.Originality/valueThis research identified a new “Borneo approach” to urban development. The study strongly recommends top priorities for the central, state and local governments of Malaysia, Brunei and Indonesia allowing the planners and decision-makers to establish a new tropical urban planning initiative with the ample design practice for this unique region in Southeast Asia. The results of this study can serve as the guiding principles for other urban environments in fragile and sensitive tropical regions.

NATIONAL HEROES IN THE INDONESIAN REVOLUTION AND THE MEANING FOR YOUNG GENERATION

Awareness of Indonesian nationalism reached its peak after independence. The heroic values ​​inherited by historical actors must be imitated by the next generation of this nation. This paper explored the national heroes in the Indonesian revolution and their meaning for the younger generation. The method used in reviewing the problem is a literature study by studying various sources such as books, published scientific articles that are relevant to the research study. The results of the study showed that in the context of inheritance, a comprehensive understanding of the values ​​of heroism is needed so that the meaning and spirit of Indonesian nationalism continued to prioritize the ideals of the nation so that it could exist more in the midst of a highly competitive global era. Today's life is coloured by various competitions in line with the universal process marked by the loosening of national boundaries so that the challenges faced by a nation are increasingly complex. The younger generation of the nation's successors is required to appear in front of taking a role in global competition. However, in order not to lose direction and even identity, the figure of a hero in wartime who was so instrumental in politics and diplomacy, and in the post-independence period needs to be followed by the younger generation in fulfilling independence and continuing their ideals of struggle

Repetition of the Marriage Contract (Shihhah) in the Rifaiyah’s Tradition

In the tradition of Jama'ah Rifaiyah there is the practice of repeating the marriage contract called Shihhah. This tradition emerged from the understanding of the central figure of the Rifaiyah congregation, Kiai Ahmad Rifai, who categorized some Muslims who supported the Dutch colonial government into the category of wicked believers, including the Penghulu (Chieftain). Penghulu who are under the auspices of the colonial government are considered no longer have a "adil/fair" nature. This has resulted in any marriage process led by the government head being considered invalid, because the chieftain is not a fair believer who is required to lead the marriage process. This tradition lasted until the post-independence period. The purpose of this study is to find out the practice of shihhah from the colonial period until now and what factors are behind it. Field research with a descriptive-analytical approach found that the practice of shihhah among the Rifaiyah congregation experienced a shift. The practice of shihhah is still carried out by some Rifaiyah congregations even though the Indonesian government is no longer a colonial government. Some Rifaiyah congregations still practice shihhah on the grounds of a clash with a religious figure. However, many Rifaiyah congregations no longer practice shihhah.

The Existence of Surakarta (Vorstenlanden) Esuksore Style Batik

The existence of esuksore style batik is a long record of a dynamic or various changes that occur in a certain period of time. Esuksore -style batik, as a noble cultural artifact, its existence is related to the various events behind the emergence and recognition of batik. This study aims to identify and describe the existence of inland esuksore style batik ( vorstenlanden ), especially Surakarta for three time periods. The findings of this study are used to reconstruct the form of esuksore -style batik as a development concept in the present. This study uses a qualitative descriptive method by collecting various artifacts of long cloth batik esuksore style from the pre-independence period, the Japanese occupation to the post-independence period. The findings show that the existence of esuksore -style batik did not only arise because of very limited socioeconomic factors, but also emerged as a trend or style that was in demand by the market at that time. This research contributes to a dissertation research on the existence of esuksore -style batik in Indonesia. Keywords: esuksore style batik, existence, inland. DOI: 10.7176/ADS/97-04 Publication date: December 31 st 2021

A GEOPOLITICS OF SLOVENIA, REVIEW

A GEOPOLITICS OF SLOVENIA, REVIEW

KYRGYZSTAN ON THE ROAD TO DEMOCRACY AND HISTORICAL ROLE IN THE REGION

The Kyrgyz Turks, who were informed about them in written sources for the first time in 201 BC, formed various political organizations and states in history. With the disintegration of the Soviet Union, the independent state of the Kyrgyz Republic was established on August 31, 1991. With the political discourses and practices put forward by the state in the post-independence period, Kyrgyzstan has begun to be called the most democratic country in Central Asia. The geography of Kyrgyzstan has an important geostrategic and geopolitical position, which is on the trade routes from history to the present, and which constitutes the transition point from east to west in central Asia. However, rich underground mines and energy resources increase the importance of the country in the modern world. The One Belt One Road project, which is planned on the same route today as the Silk Road gained in the past, has increased the geopolitical importance of Kyrgyzstan again. In this context, it can be said that this geopolitical and geostrategic importance will continue in the future. Kyrgyzstan, whose importance has become more and more important in the process of rapidly intensifying competition due to the geopolitical and geostrategic situation of the Central Asian region, the presence of large energy resources and rich underground mines, constantly strives to maintain the multi-faceted foreign policy principle in its foreign policy approach in order to balance the effects of the great powers in the region and the country. In this study, the political, socio-cultural development of Kyrgyzstan after independence and its role in the region in this historical process will be discussed.

Mapping education research in post-Soviet countries: A bibliometric analysis

This study aims to uncover the development and structure of post-Soviet education research since the dissolution of the USSR to date using a descriptive bibliometric approach and metadata extracted from 6754 publications indexed in the Web of Science Core Collection database for the period 1992–2020. The findings suggest that education research in post-Soviet countries has increased in the last 15 years, but its contribution to international literature remains marginal. There is also a great disparity in the production of education research among post-Soviet countries, with Russia and Ukraine leading the generation of research on education in this region. Estonia appears as the most influential country in terms of citations, and Central Asian countries, excluding Kazakhstan, contribute the least. Research collaboration has increased significantly during the post-independence period but continues to be primarily within national borders or between neighboring countries. Post-Soviet education research covers a variety of subfields and topics that have evolved over the years. These topics align with those that interest researchers in other global regions, demonstrating the potential of post-Soviet scholars to contribute to the international research literature. The findings are discussed, and the implications for the future development of post-Soviet education research are highlighted.

The Ages of Jihadi Salafism: A Dual Exchange of Ideas and Contexts in Ideological Formation

In this study I try to trace the ideological formation of jihadi Salafism through a chronological survey of the foundational texts, which were penned by people, who were regarded as ideologues of jihadi Salafism, in the form of reaction pieces to the conjuncture they were set against. I argue in this article that there is a strong connection between some religious, political, and military developments and facts, internal or external in origin, that influenced the Muslim world and each major theme of jihadi thought that went into circulation over time. The main objective of this article is to demonstrate that the jihadi ideology, generated as an anomaly of the mainstream Islamic movement in the post-independence period, emerged interrelated with the facts and developments aforementioned above, matured, developed, and became a terrorist movement. The study’s coverage is the course of jihadism from the 1960s to 2006 when ISIS began to take form.

Le Kéren Kayémeth LeIsraël en Afrique du Nord (1920-1962)

The purpose of this article is to study the history and evolution of the North-African branch of the Jewish National Fund, better known as K&#233;ren Kay&#233;meth LeIsra&#235;l (KKL), from the 1920s to the post-independence period (1962), while highlighting its geographic singularities. The KKL&#8217;s actions in Tunisia, Morocco and Algeria &#8211; fundraising, political propaganda, cultural activities, etc. &#8211; shed light, more broadly, on the complex relationship between North-African Jews and the Zionist ideology, and its evolution along the second half of the 20th century.

Cash Crops, Print Technologies, and the Politicization of Ethnicity in Africa

What are the origins of the ethnic landscapes in contemporary states? Drawing on a preregistered research design, we test the influence of dual socioeconomic revolutions that spread throughout Africa during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries—export agriculture and print technologies. We argue these changes transformed ethnicity via their effects on politicization and boundary-making. Print technologies strengthened imagined communities, leading to more salient—yet porous—ethnic identities. Cash crop endowments increased groups’ mobilizational potential but with more exclusionary boundaries to control agricultural rents. Using historical data on cash crops and African language publications, we find that groups exposed to these historical forces are more likely to be politically relevant in the postindependence period, and their members report more salient ethnic identities. We observe heterogenous effects on boundary-making as measured by interethnic marriage; relative to cash crops, printing fostered greater openness to assimilate linguistically related outsiders. Our findings illuminate not only the historical sources of ethnic politicization but also mechanisms shaping boundary formation.

Uttarakhand Movement: The Perspective of Political Parties and from the Eye of Media

In the post-independent period of India, most of all the political parties have involved in some form to affect the claim of separate hill state Uttarakhand from the Uttar Pradesh because of its specific topographical circumstances, economic activities, the exceptional cultural uniqueness of region, existence, practices and many more. Subsequently understanding the many grounds which controlled to the Uttarakhand separate state movement, it is authoritative to recognize the contribution of political parties in the identical. Major focus of this paper is to analyse the role of several national/regional political parties in the Uttarakhand separate state movements which intended at the demanding of separate for this specific region. In late decade of eighties, mass movement for state for hilly Uttarakhand selected up push and question of separate state again came into the priority position. In the year of 1994 when the Uttar Pradesh state government stated 27 percent reservation for the Other Back Classes in government jobs and education, there were youth agitation all over hills against the reservation. By way of the OBC represents only 2 to 3 percent of the hill region, the step to save 27 percent seats for OBC, was consideration baseless and unpractical. The matter of reservation for the OBCs converted in mobilizing youth to backing the call for a separate Uttarakhand state. The very first time in the demanding of the mass movement youths involved in such record numbers, till now they were perceptible by their absenteeism. The demand to call back 27 percent reservation for the O.B.Cs quickly transformed into the reservation to whole of hilly region. Finally, all the issues remained into the background and the require of statehood ship came into front in the entire mass movement. Males were all the time involved in the movement but the questions which needed bigger demand for women were employment opportunities, choices for their children and the increasing usage of liquor by men in the hills. These were the issues which directly involve the happiness of their families. Since 1952 three models of separate governmental setup for Uttarakhand have been suggested from time to time: first, a complete state comparable to other states in Indian Union; second, an autonomous Uttarakhand and; third, Union Territory type. The first form initiates support with the Uttarakhand Kranti Dal. The second was advocated by the C.P.I. and the Uttarakhand Sangharsh Vahini till 1989. The Indian Congress party had constantly favoured Union Territory category for Uttarakhand (Pathak 1989:40-47).

Changing Electoral Behaviour of Tea Tribes People in Assam: A Study of Mariani Legislative Constituency

The electoral behaviour of people is generally influenced by different socio-political and economic factors. It is more common in a diverse society like India where caste and community plays a significant role in many ways shaping the mindset of the electorates during the time elections. In Assam, these factors found to be more determined in many areas among various communities. The Tea Tribes are one of such communities in the state which has been used as vote banks by political parties since the post-independent period. But gradually this traditional conception of vote bank and trend of community voting has declined as many other factors started determining the electoral behaviour of this community.

Post-independence homescapes in Delhi: Mohan Rakesh’s Andhere Band Kamre and a nouveau middle-class amidst persistent inequality

ABSTRACT After Independence, Delhi’s residential landscapes began to change, but to what degree did such changes impact the way individuals perceived of the city? The colonial government had drawn boundaries around impoverished spaces, removing and segregating them from hyper-regulated wealthy spaces. In contrast, the postcolonial state saw all spaces as falling within its regulatory purview and sought to actively intervene in such areas, not simply destroy or hide them. The postcolonial state also heavily invested in public housing and undertook ambitious projects aimed at bettering the living situations of the middle-class. Using a discussion of the homes and cityscapes described in Mohan Rakesh’s 1966 book Andhere Band Kamre, we consider how individuals perceived of built landscapes in Delhi during this post-Independence period of rapid change. We then present information from a present-day architectural survey of the locations described by Rakesh, drawing attention to the legacies of this post-Independence moment within the modern city. We conclude that, while the city remained segregated by wealth after Independence, many individuals experienced a fleeting optimism pertaining to their ability to move across hierarchical landscapes–an optimism that diminished as the transformative projects of the Nehruvian state struggled to significantly curb inequality.

The Effects of Internal and External Migration on the Spatial Segregation in Bishkek in the Post-Independence Period

Bağımsızlık sonrası Kırgızistan’da gerçekleşen sosyalist ekonomik sistemden liberal ekonomik sisteme geçiş süreci, ülkedeki tarımsal ve kolektif işletmelerin kapanması, kırsal alandaki toprak kıtlığı ve işsizlik ülkede iç ve dış göçü tetiklemiştir. Bazı insanlar iş bulma umuduyla Rusya’ya göç ederken, ülke içinde kalan insanlar için Bişkek göç merkezi haline gelmiştir. İç göçle artan kent nüfusunun konut ihtiyaçlarının karşılanmaması sonucu Bişkek çevresi gecekondulaşırken, belli bir kesim ise dış göçmenler tarafından aktarılan dövizlerle aldıkları ayrıcalıklı konutlara taşınmaktadır. Bu gelişmeler Sovyet Birliği’nin dağılmasının ardından Bişkek kentinin kentsel alanlarının büyük bir değişime uğrayarak yeniden şekillenmesine neden olmuş ve mekânsal ayrışmayı kaçınılmaz hale getirmiştir. Sosyalizm sonrası ortaya çıkan yoksul mahallelerin yanı sıra yeni elit yerleşim alanları Bişkek kentindeki mekânsal ayrışmanın en belirgin örnekleridir. Bu bağlamda göç hareketlerinin göç eden birey üzerinde etkisi olduğu kadar göç alan kentsel alanın değişim ve dönüşüm süreci üzerinde de önemli etkileri olduğu ortaya çıkmıştır. Bu çalışmanın amacı bağımsızlık sonrası Kırgızistan’ın benimsediği neo-liberal politikalar sonucu gerçekleşen iç ve dış göçün ülkenin sanayi ve kültür merkezi olan Bişkek kentinde ortaya çıkan mekânsal ayrışma üzerindeki etkilerini incelemektir.