Post-experiment Interviews Research Articles

Towards an Inclusive Museum Management Strategy. An Exploratory Study of Consumption Experience in Visitors with Disabilities. The Case of the CosmoCaixa Science Museum

In the field of cultural tourism, museums have been pioneers in focusing on visitors with disabilities. They have used inclusive orientation to offer the kind of memorable and satisfying experiences that are so beneficial to a group at constant risk of social exclusion. Their task is made more difficult, however, by visitors’ perception of barriers to inclusion, and identification therefore becomes a priority at the strategic level. Based on this idea, the present study analyzes experiences from two tours of the CosmoCaixa Barcelona museum by 32 people with disabilities (PwD). The use of ethnographic techniques and post-experience interviews shows how, despite the legal framework in relation to people with disabilities, hospitality managers find it difficult to put this framework into practice and cater to the needs of this segment of the population. Two factors become particularly clear: the difficulties experienced by museum staff in identifying people with disability, and museum managers’ lack of training and knowledge of the wants and needs of people with disabilities. Academic and strategic recommendations for museum managers are provided at the end of the article.

Pedestrian interaction with automated vehicles at uncontrolled intersections

Automated Vehicles (AVs) are being developed rapidly and tested on public roads, but pedestrians’ interaction with AV is not comprehensively understood or thoroughly investigated to ensure safe operations and the public’s trust of AVs. In this study, we aimed to provide another research evidence to enhance such understanding with the use of external interfaces for facilitating the interaction between pedestrians and AVs. We developed five external interfaces, including text, symbol, animated-eye, a combination of text and symbol, and speed. These interfaces communicated five types of information, including (1) intent of AV; 2) advice to pedestrians of what to do, (3) AV’s awareness of pedestrians, (4) combination of intent and advice, and (5) vehicle movement (i.e., speed). We tested the interfaces through two field studies at uncontrolled intersections with crosswalks. The Wizard of Oz method was used, in which an experimenter worked as a driver in an instrumented vehicle and wore an outfit to be invisible to the pedestrians, thus rendering the set-up to simulate an AV interacting with a pedestrian. The interfaces were displayed on an LED panel mounted on the AV. Results showed that the AV’s external interface did not change pedestrians’ response time in comparison with the baseline without any interface. There was no statistically significant difference in response time among the external interfaces either. According to the post-experimental interview, vehicle movement pattern (e.g., vehicle speed) continued to be a significant cue for pedestrians to decide when to cross the intersections. Participants perceived the communication of the AV’s intent and vehicle speed as more beneficial than the communication of AV’s awareness. The subjective ratings showed positive effects of those interfaces that were easy to understand (e.g., text interface and speed interface), which also helped pedestrians feel safer when interacting with the AV.

Medical students consulting from home: A qualitative evaluation of a tool for maintaining student exposure to patients during lockdown

Introduction Lockdowns during the COVID-19 pandemic had a disruptive effect on medical education when they prevented medical students accessing real patients. To address this, we piloted 35 medical students at home consulting remotely with patients. Method We evaluated the intervention using qualitative analysis of post-experience interviews with a sample of 13 students and 10 clinical supervisors. Results The experience was perceived by all those interviewed to be both acceptable and educationally valuable. Data analysis revealed different models of implementation according to type of patients involved (acute, recently treated or expert patients) and type of communication platform used (AccuRx, Microsoft Teams or telephone). Practical and educational challenges were identified in relation to the following elements of the experience: patients consulting with students remotely, students being remotely supervised and students undertaking patient contact from home. Strategies for addressing these challenges were directly suggested by interviewees and also inferred from our analysis of the data. Conclusions Remotely supervised medical students at home undertaking remote consultations with patients can be acceptable and educationally valuable. The intervention was piloted in a UK graduate entry medical course and so it would be useful to replicate this study in other medical student populations.

Empirical study of Team Usability Testing: a laboratory experiment

The evaluation of groupware has a long history; several researchers have investigated this research area and made attempts to develop evaluation methods. This paper aims to make a contribution to this research topic by introducing a groupware evaluation method called Team Usability Testing. The goal of this method is to evaluate the usability of real-time distributed groupware. The Team Usability Test consists of a combination of questionnaires, on-screen behaviour recordings and interviews. The data analysis is based on the mechanics of collaboration theoretical framework and involves communication analysis, behaviour analysis, and analysis of post-experiment interviews. A laboratory experiment and a field study constitute the two main phases of the creation of the usability testing method. In this paper, the results of the laboratory experiment and its implications for the field study will be discussed. According to the results, the Team Usability Test is able to explore team-level usability problems and contextual problems. The paper ends with the discussion of future field research considerations related to the possible application of the Team Usability Test in real-life work settings.

“Well, the Message Is From the Institute of Something”: Exploring Source Trust of Cancer-Related Messages on Simulated Facebook Posts

Growing evidence points to the significant amount of health misinformation on social media platforms, requiring users to assess the believability of messages and trustworthiness of message sources. This mixed methods experimental study fills this gap in research by examining social media users’ (n=53) trust assessment in simulated cancer-related messages using eye-tracking, surveys, and cognitive interviews. Posts varied by information veracity (evidence-based vs. non-evidence-based) and source type (government agency, health organization, lay individual); topics included HPV vaccination and sun safety. Among sources, participants reported trusting the government more than individuals, regardless of veracity. When viewing non-evidence-based messages, participants reported higher trust in health organizations than individuals. Participants with high trust in message source tended to report high message believability. Furthermore, attention spent on viewing the source of the post was not associated with the amount of trust in the source of message, which suggests that participants may have utilized other cognitive heuristics when processing the posts. Through post-experiment interviews, participants described higher trust in government due to reputation and familiarity. Further verification of the quality of information is needed to combat the spread of misinformation on Facebook. Future research should consider messaging strategies that include sources that are already trusted and begin to build trust among other credible sources.

Cognitive, Motor and Social Factors of Music Instrument Training Programs for Older Adults' Improved Wellbeing.

Given emerging evidence that learning to play a musical instrument may lead to a number of cognitive benefits for older adults, it is important to clarify how these training programs can be delivered optimally and meaningfully. The effective acquisition of musical and domain-general skills by later-life learners may be influenced by social, cultural and individual factors within the learning environment. The current study examines the effects of a 10-week piano training program on healthy older adult novices’ cognitive and motor skills, in comparison to an inactive waitlisted control group. Fifteen participants completed piano training led by a music facilitator in small groups (max n = 4 per lesson class; two experimental, two waitlisted control groups). Data was collected using an explanatory sequential design: quantitative data from a battery of cognitive and motor tests was collected pre/post-test on all participants, with further post-test data from the waitlisted control group (n = 7). Qualitative data included weekly facilitator observations, participant practice diaries, and an individual, semi-structured, post-experiment interview. Bayesian modelling demonstrated moderate evidence of a strong positive impact of training on part A of the Trail Making test (TMT), indicating improved visuo-motor skills. Moderate evidence for negative impacts of training on part B of the Trail Making Test (and difference score delta) was also found, suggesting no benefit of cognitive switching. Qualitative results revealed that the group learning environment motivated participants to play in musical ensembles and to socialize. Motivation was optimal when all participants were happy with the chosen repertoire (participants reported they were motivated by learning to play familiar music) and when the facilitator observed that groups had formed cohesive bonds. Informed by these factors, exploratory analyses demonstrated strong evidence that a participant’s lesson class had an impact on post-test scores (TMT part A). These results not only demonstrate the extent of cognitive benefits of a short-term piano training intervention for older adults, but also the importance of considering the group dynamics in the learning environment.

A brief home-based palliative care learning experience for medical students and resident doctors in Okinawa, Japan.

BackgroundThe clinical component of medical education for students and resident doctors in Japan occurs almost entirely in the hospital setting. Because of this inpatient focus, graduate medical education clinical training often fails to expose physicians-in-training to the challenges that patients may face in the outpatient or home setting.This is a descriptive study in which we explore what participating students and resident doctors learned through our brief home-based teaching experience.MethodsFrom June 2016 to December 2017, attending physicians on the internal medicine service had medical students and resident doctors accompany them on home care visits. Participants were selected by convenience sampling based on their rotation availability. After the home visit and the interactive discussion, the participants were expected to prepare a reflective journal on their experience and learning. Thematic analysis was applied, and key themes were developed based on Kolb’s ELT (Experiential learning theory). Three months after completion of the experience, semi-structured interviews were individually conducted assessing participants’ self-perceived changes.ResultsThirty-two medical students(10) or residents(22)participated in a home visit. Thirty of these learners were able to complete a reflective journal. Using thematic analysis, we identified 2 domains and 6 key themes from the participants’ perceptions.Participants recognized the importance of patient-centered care, inter-professional collaboration of the home care team, and reconceptualized the meaning of medical practice and their professional identity as a doctor.Three month post-experience interviews were completed on 12 of the original 30 participants who completed the reflective journal. 2 domains and 6 key themes from the residents’ experiences and perceptions were generated. The participants reported an increased attention to the daily lives and social situations of their hospitalized patients, and an extension of their focus beyond the clinical medical treatment of the patient.ConclusionThe experience of a brief visit to a patient’s home is a novel educational approach that may potentially provide medical students and resident doctors with opportunities to learn about out-of-hospital, patient-centered, home-based medical care.

Citizen science and the public nature of climate action

ABSTRACTInternational efforts to implement the Paris Agreement call for unprecedented levels of collaboration to address one of society’s most pressing crises. In this study we take the position that climate action work is very public work, in that decarbonization requires significant effort to learn together in ways that change commitments to enact environmental stewardship. To better understand this challenge, we examined citizen science as a space where climate action work is also the work of knowledge co-creation. Pre–post experience surveys and interviews with citizen scientists illustrate the transformative potential of place-based climate learning. Findings suggest that the relationships individuals developed with specific scientists and their personalized approaches to conducting science impacted how individuals related to the responsibility of environmental stewardship. This study highlights how effective, impactful collaboration is enriched when professionals share who they are in the context of the climate action work they do.

Interaction between pedestrians and automated vehicles: A Wizard of Oz experiment

Automated vehicles (AVs) will be introduced on public roads in the future, meaning that traditional vehicles and AVs will be sharing the urban space. There is currently little knowledge about the interaction between pedestrians and AVs from the point of view of the pedestrian in a real-life environment. Pedestrians may not know with which type of vehicle they are interacting, potentially leading to stress and altered crossing decisions. For example, pedestrians may show elevated stress and conservative crossing behavior when the AV driver does not make eye contact and performs a non-driving task instead. It is also possible that pedestrians assume that an AV would always yield (leading to short critical gaps). This study aimed to determine pedestrians’ crossing decisions when interacting with an AV as compared to when interacting with a traditional vehicle. We performed a study on a closed road section where participants (N = 24) encountered a Wizard of Oz AV and a traditional vehicle in a within-subject design. In the Wizard of Oz setup, a fake ‘driver’ sat on the driver seat while the vehicle was driven by the passenger by means of a joystick. Twenty scenarios were studied regarding vehicle conditions (traditional vehicle, ‘driver’ reading a newspaper, inattentive driver in a vehicle with “self-driving” sign on the roof, inattentive driver in a vehicle with “self-driving” signs on the hood and door, attentive driver), vehicle behavior (stopping vs. not stopping), and approach direction (left vs. right). Participants experienced each scenario once, in a randomized order. This allowed assessing the behavior of participants when interacting with AVs for the first time (no previous training or experience). Post-experiment interviews showed that about half of the participants thought that the vehicle was (sometimes) driven automatically. Measurements of the participants’ critical gap (i.e., the gap below which the participant will not attempt to begin crossing the street) and self-reported level of stress showed no statistically significant differences between the vehicle conditions. However, results from a post-experiment questionnaire indicated that most participants did perceive differences in vehicle appearance, and reported to have been influenced by these features. Future research could adopt more fine-grained behavioral measures, such as eye tracking, to determine how pedestrians react to AVs. Furthermore, we recommend examining the effectiveness of dynamic AV-to-pedestrian communication, such as artificial lights and gestures.

Vibrotactile and vibroacoustic communications: pairs in interaction and play—an interactive structure and bodies in an urban environment

We designed a vibrotactile vest and The Humming Wall, a vibroacoustic interactive furniture set in an urban environment to interact with each other. We developed the vibrotactile patterns in the vest as a form of vibrotactile language to convey information to the wearer. In addition, we designed a set of interactive movements on The Humming Wall that would trigger patterns on the vest and elicit sensations and encourage body movements onto the wearer’s body. We invited people to interact in pairs at The Humming Wall, with one at the wall and one wearing the vest (they later swapped roles). Actions by the one at the wall, such as swiping or knocking on the wall were repeated on the vest wearer’s body. In addition, participants could ‘feel’ (vibroacoustically) and hear their own heartbeats and breath rates at the wall. We conducted a field trial with 39 participants over a 5-week period. Participants wearing the vest (and their pair) completed a set of tasks. We logged use and responses, recorded all activities on video and conducted post-experiment interviews and questionnaires. The results depicted the participants’ experience, communication and connection while wearing the vibrotactile vest and interacting with the wall. The findings show convincing, strong and positive responses to novel interactions between the responsive vibroacoustic environment and the vibrotactile vest. This work constitutes the first field trial with people ‘working’ in pairs with a vibrotactile wearable responding to and driving vibroacoustic displays with an interactive vibroacoustic environment.

Text messaging as a near synchronous method of remote support in outdoor adventurous settings

In transient outdoor adventurous settings such as expeditions, mobile communication is often used in a safety framework or for support. Text messaging (or SMS: Short Message Service) as a near synchronous method is explored in this non-representational micro-research in a cycling expedition context. This interactive approach is supplemented by telephone conversations and post-experience interviews. The dualistic methodological positioning within a phenomenological and ethnographic approach is situated in an expanding trans-disciplinary mobilities discourse. Text messaging is a valid tool for recording meaning and reflexivity of real, lived experiences in this setting and has application for remote supervisors of outdoor adventures.

A Comparative Usability Study of Independent Web-Based Personal Health Records

Previous research on personal health records (PHRs) has focused on applications that are “tethered” to a specific electronic health record (EHR). However, there is a gap in research on the usability of unaffiliated, independent PHRs, as well as research on college-aged PHR users. Therefore, we performed a comparative usability study with 18 college-aged participants on three popular, freely available, independent PHRs. We chose a within-subject design to allow for comparative feedback from each participant in the post-experiment interview. In order to control for a learning effect between PHRs potentially affecting the usability performance measures, the order that participants used the PHRs was randomized across participants. We used analysis of variance (ANOVA) to determine if there were statistically significant differences in the usability measures. Based on variability of PHR use and design reported in previous research, we hypothesized that there would be a significant difference for each of the measures previously described and that one PHR would be the most usable product based on these measures. This hypothesis is based on the PHR’s extensive resources and company history. Participants completed the same six tasks in three different PHRs. Dependent variables included task time, mouse movement, mouse clicks, keystrokes, errors, and user satisfaction ratings based on the Computer System Usability Questionnaire (CSUQ). Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to determine the significance in the difference of the means for each dependent variable. Results showed statistically significant differences in CSUQ survey categories, errors, and keystrokes. Results supported one of the three PHRs as having better usability than its tested counterparts. While the initial purpose of this study was comparative usability testing of PHRs for college-aged students, the study provided other insights as well. Similar to other usability studies found in the literature review, the study used multiple methods, including objective task metrics, a survey, and an interview to solicit feedback on the systems. This provides a new addition to the literature in that it analyzes the usability of a system with a new user group and completed a comparative analysis of three leading Web-based, untethered PHRs. The initial hypothesis that there would be a significant difference in usability for each of the dependent measures and that one PHR would have better usability based on these measures was partially supported by the results. While not all of the criteria had statistically significant results for the three different systems, such as task time, mouse movement, mouse clicks, and interface quality, many of the measures did have significant differences in their means, and one of the PHRs had the best results in the majority of metrics analyzed. Though one PHR seemed to more usable than the other systems, it does not imply that this PHR is without error. There are still improvements that could be made to enhance the usability of the system. For example, several participants commented on how they liked the interface of one of the competing PHRs. Several participants also commented that some of the drop-downs limit the options and are not representative of the information they were trying to enter. Expanded dropdowns or typing options could be added to improve this. As found in the a different study, there are still barriers to the adoption of the PHR that was found to be most usable. Using the survey and open-ended survey results as a guide to improvement, the PHR that was found to be most usable in our study has the potential to further improve its usability.

The Criteria People Use in Relevance Decisions on Health Information: An Analysis of User Eye Movements When Browsing a Health Discussion Forum.

BackgroundPeople are increasingly accessing health-related social media sites, such as health discussion forums, to post and read user-generated health information. It is important to know what criteria people use when deciding the relevance of information found on health social media websites, in different situations.ObjectiveThe study attempted to identify the relevance criteria that people use when browsing a health discussion forum, in 3 types of use contexts: when seeking information for their own health issue, when seeking for other people’s health issue, and when browsing without a particular health issue in mind.MethodsA total of 58 study participants were self-assigned to 1 of the 3 use contexts or information needs and were asked to browse a health discussion forum, HealthBoards.com. In the analysis, browsing a discussion forum was divided into 2 stages: scanning a set of post surrogates (mainly post titles) in the summary result screen and reading a detailed post content (including comments by other users). An eye tracker system was used to capture participants’ eye movement behavior and the text they skim over and focus (ie, fixate) on during browsing. By analyzing the text that people’s eyes fixated on, the types of health information used in the relevance judgment were determined. Post-experiment interviews elicited participants’ comments on the relevance of the information and criteria used.ResultsIt was found that participants seeking health information for their own health issue focused significantly more on the poster’s symptoms, personal history of the disease, and description of the disease (P=.01, .001, and .02). Participants seeking for other people’s health issue focused significantly more on cause of disease, disease terminology, and description of treatments and procedures (P=.01, .01, and .02). In contrast, participants browsing with no particular issue in mind focused significantly more on general health topics, hot topics, and rare health issues (P=.01, .01, and .01).ConclusionUsers browsing for their own health issues used mainly case-based relevance criteria to relate the poster's health situation to their own. Participants seeking for others’ issues used mostly general knowledge–based criteria, whereas users with no particular issue in mind used general interest– and curiosity-based criteria.

Benefits of walking and solo experiences in UK wild places.

This paper examines human-nature interaction and how therapeutic this relationship is by investigating the efficacy of structured outdoor experience. Two walking and solo experience (WSEs) explored university students' (aged 20-43 years) perceptions of walking through and being with nature. The first was a 5-day journey (n = 4; 3 females and 1 male) and the second (n = 5; 3 females and 2 males) took place over two weekends, with a 2-week interval in-between. Pre- and post-experience interviews, journal writing, group discussions and a 9-month follow-up interviews were used to collect data and thematic analysis [Braun and Clarke (Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qual Res Psychol 2006;3:77-101.)] was applied. Both WSEs were considered together during analysis, as well as comparisons made between the two, in order to evaluate implications for practice. Benefits of the WSE that contributed to a general sense of well-being were: (i) gaining a sense of freedom and escape; (ii) gaining a sense of awareness and sensitivity to one's environment and its influence (iii) gaining confidence in being able to cope and take action; (iv) gaining a sense of perspective on and appreciation for life. Furthermore, the meaning participants formed in relation to their environment before, during and after the WSE, and the activity within that environment, played a role in their sense of well-being and in their motivations to re-access nature in other places. Findings suggest that WSEs are a cost effective way to give rise to beneficial and durable experiences, but a more holistic approach to policy is needed.

Imagery and self-efficacy in the injury context

ObjectivesTo develop and test the factorial validity of an adapted version of the Athletic Injury Imagery Questionnaire (AIIQ-2: Sordoni, Hall, & Forwell, 2002). To explore the effect of an imagery intervention on self-efficacy in the sport injury context. DesignStudy 1, cross-sectional; Study 2, multiple-base line. MethodIn Study 1 the AIIQ-2 was adapted to include a pain management subscale. This adapted imagery questionnaire (AIIQ-3) was then administered to 291 injured athletes (M age = 28.64 years, SD = 14.30). In Study 2 using a multiple-baseline single subject design, the effects of an imagery intervention on self-efficacy prior to physiotherapy treatment of five athletes with a Type B malleolar fracture (M age = 49.50 years, SD = 16.56) was examined. A follow-up post-experimental interview explored participants' perceptions of the intervention. ResultsStudy 1, confirmatory factor analysis revealed evidence for the factorial validity of the AIIQ-3. Study 2, results from the multiple-base line design demonstrated that for two out of the five participants there were observable and statistically meaningful increases in task efficacy, with the same result in three out of five participants for coping efficacy. The post-interview results revealed that all intervention participants perceived the intervention to be beneficial and effective beyond the general information provided. ConclusionsThe results are discussed in terms of overcoming an inherent weakness in previous injury-related imagery research and the applied implications for the time-course of rehabilitation.

Fostering Cultural Humility among Pre-Service Teachers: Connecting with Children and Youth of Immigrant Families through Service-Learning

This article documents a community-initiated service-learning project within a teacher education program. A social justice model guided the initiative to raise critical awareness on power and privilege while countering deficit-model thinking. Partnering with community agencies serving immigrant children and youth, the faculty researcher worked with an office for community-engaged learning. Data included pre- and post-experience interviews with pre-service candidates. Findings showed benefits from this justice-based approach in improving self-awareness, appreciating the strengths of immigrant children and youth, and an increased sense of cultural humility in pre-service teachers.

Exploring hurdles to transfer : student experiences of applying knowledge across disciplines

This paper explores the ways students perceive the transfer of learned knowledge to new situations – often a surprisingly difficult prospect. The novel aspect compared to the traditional transfer studies is that the learning phase is not a part of the experiment itself. The intention was only to activate acquired knowledge relevant to the transfer target using a short primer immediately prior to the situation where the knowledge was to be applied. Eight volunteer students from either mathematics or computer science curricula were given a task of designing an adder circuit using logic gates: a new context in which to apply knowledge of binary arithmetic and Boolean algebra. The results of a phenomenographic classification of the views presented by the students in their post-experiment interviews are reported. The degree to which the students were conscious of the acquired knowledge they employed and how they applied it in a new context emerged as the differentiating factors.

Perceiving spaces through digital augmentation: An exploratory study of navigational augmented reality apps

The study aims to explore effects of navigational augmented reality (AR) apps on the users’ perception of their surroundings, and to analyze in which ways these effects are enabled as well as limited by the performance of AR apps on currently available devices. To answer these questions, an exploratory quasi-experiment has been conducted, consisting of three groups of participants, each group differing in their method for obtaining location information as well as the frequency with which this information is consumed. Semistructured pre- and postexperiment interviews with participants, questionnaires that were filled out by the participants after every app usage, and expert interviews with navigational AR app developers are employed in combination with analyzing the effect of augmented reality on the user’s perception of space. Surprisingly, it was found that AR users actually became less aware of their surroundings than non-AR navigational app users. This is mainly due to the comparatively worse performance of AR apps on currently available smartphones: The overall quality regularly suffers from a cluttered and confusing presentation, leading to considerable amounts of time spent “deciphering” the layout and functionality of the presented results. Erratic result behavior, caused by frequent movement delays and unexpected lag of the virtual objects further decreases the quality of the overall experience. Finally, some initially unexpected issues related to the social acceptability of augmented reality app usage in public places were encountered during the experiment, which are explained by the physically very involved method of interacting with AR apps, namely having to point and hold the device into the direction information is being sought over. Nevertheless, augmented reality was found to have a number of distinct advantages over other navigational apps, namely the ability to improve the users’ understanding of proximity, directions, and spatial relations.

Perceived Impacts of a Public Health Training Center Field Placement Program among Trainees: Findings from a Small Group Externship Experience.

There is heightened interest in identifying the impact of the federally funded Public Health Training Center (PHTC) program. Although evaluation studies have been conducted of public health training in general, evaluations of PHTC programs are rare. Field placement components are congressionally mandated requirements of PHTCs. Field placements are typically intensive, supervised externships for students to gain public health experience with local health departments or non-profit organizations. We have found no published evaluations of PHTC field placement components. This may be because of their small size and unique nature. We designed and evaluated a 200-h field placement program at an established PHTC. The evaluation included pre/post surveys measuring public health core competencies, and post-experience interviews. We found significant increases in three competency domains among trainees: policy development and program planning, communication skills, and community dimensions of practice. These outcomes contribute to evidence based on the efficacy of PHTC field placement programs, and underscore their role in public health training.

Establishing wiki design principles to advance wiki-based learning: an eye tracking study

A review of research studies on the integration of wiki into curriculum indicates the necessity of establishing wiki design principles in order to capitalise on the learning opportunity wiki technology offers. Utilising eye tracking technology, this study explores wiki design principles by examining students’ reading patterns when they study a learning topic presented in wiki format. Over 21 hours of eye movement data were collected, analysed and compared. Post-experiment interviews were conducted to obtain demographic and background information. Based on the data analysis, three wiki design principles were developed. This study concludes by calling for more attention on the development of scientific-research-based wiki design principles to help students capitalise on wiki-based learning opportunity.