Post-consumer Packaging Waste Research Articles

Dynamics in the evolution of circular sourcing strategies: Evidence from German frontrunners sourcing for recycled plastics

Firms’ circular sourcing strategies are essential for the transition to a circular economy as they enhance circularity both within individual firms and across industries. A key barrier to the implementation of such strategies is that many approaches still offer a static perspective on resource use without addressing its evolutionary characteristics and dynamic interdependencies over time. Based on the assumption that companies’ strategic procurement decisions on recyclate markets show temporal patterns depending on the development of these markets (“marketness”), the dynamics in the complex cause-and-effect structures of circular procurement strategies are analysed longitudinally with the help of causal loop diagrams. Employing a comparative case-study design with the example of German frontrunners sourcing recycled plastics, the paper addresses three recyclate markets at various stages of development, ranging from the emerging market of recovered plastic litter, through the developing market of plastic recyclate from mixed post-consumer packaging waste, towards the well-established market of recycled deposit bottles. The results reveal ideal-typical longitudinal patterns of company leaders’ strong commitment to sustainability, facilitated by flexible organisational structures, significant investment in product development, sound supplier relationship management and brand building to sway consumer preferences towards circular products, indicating that market-shaping activities are key in long-term shifts towards circular market transitions. By understanding the dynamics of circular sourcing and their relationship with the development stage of recyclate markets, the study sheds light on potential governance measures to scale-up plastic recyclate markets for a circular plastics economy. It concludes that overall dynamics point to a steady development of firms’ circular sourcing strategies and a rapid growth in recyclate application, involving complex challenges of resource circularity that call for carefully targeted regulatory policies.

Establishing best practices for E-commerce transport packaging waste management in Canada: A systematic review

The growth in online retail purchases has increased significantly, especially through the COVID-19 pandemic, yet causes more packaging waste than brick-and-mortar retail. Free and easy returns further exacerbate the problem. Current research addressing post-consumer packaging waste has focused on packaging design and material choices. Yet, effective guidelines, policies, strategies, and practices for e-commerce packaging waste management must be determined (Escursell et al., 2021). Therefore, this research identifies global best practices to address transport packaging waste in e-commerce, focusing on Canada. A systematic review of the extant literature (2011–2020) revealed five key objectives of packaging sustainability guidelines: Optimizing Resources, Responsible Sourcing, Resource Recovery, Material Health, and Consumer Engagement. The analysis showed that Responsible Sourcing and Resources Recovery were highlighted in 41% of publications, Optimizing Resources in 31%, and Consumer Engagement in 23% of the studies. The most popular waste reduction strategy was Design for Environment under the Optimizing Resources guideline. This work is the first to identify and articulate clear guidelines, policies, and practices to support industry and policy decision-makers in addressing the transport packaging waste problem in e-commerce.

Washing Post-Consumer Flexible Polyethylene Packaging Waste

The mechanical and thermal properties of injection-molded recycled polyethylene were studied, specifically with respect to the influence of large-scale washing and melt-compounding of polyethylene from post-consumer packaging waste. Three types of materials were studied: those taken after sorting, after sorting and washing, and after sorting, washing, and melt-compounding, including melt-filtration, all from a large-scale material flow. The materials were further processed on a laboratory scale and compared. The results showed that large-scale washing significantly reduced thermo-oxidative stability, as well as molar mass and melt viscosity. The degradation during large-scale washing made the material susceptible to further degradation in the subsequent extrusion compounding, as shown by the differences in compounding at 240 and 200 °C using a high-shear screw configuration. The compounding parameters, screw configuration, and compounding temperature did not influence the stiffness and strength of the unwashed and large-scale-washed materials, but the elongation-at-break varied, specifically, with the increased temperature. Washing had an influence on the mechanical properties as well, and the unwashed material provided molded samples with stiffness measurements of approximately 550 MPa, whereas the large-scale-washed material provided stiffness of approximately 400 MPa. The strength measurements were approximately 15 MPa for samples made of both unwashed and large-scale-washed material, and the elongation-at-break measurements were between 50 and 150%. The large-scale-washed and compounded materials had very different mechanical properties, with stiffness measurements of approximately 320 MPa, strength of approximately 20 MPA, and elongation-at-break of approximately 350%. The significantly different mechanical properties of the large-scale-washed and compounded materials were likely due to the melt-filtration included in the compounding through the removal of metal and rubber particles, and they may also have been due to the compatibilizing and stabilizing additive used in the compounding.

A REVIEW OF RECENT TRENDS TO INCREASE THE SHARE OF POST-CONSUMER PACKAGING WASTE TO RECYCLING IN EUROPE

Through the Circular Economy Package, the EU aims to reduce material imports and environmental impacts of waste management. Ambitious recycling targets should help to achieve these objectives. As a response, the waste industry developed technical and organizational solutions that can intervene at different stages of a waste management system in order to increase the recovery of recycling materials, starting with improved separate collection over the use of modern material recovery facilities up to the enhanced treatment of waste incineration ashes. The large question is how each of these options can contribute to increase recycling rates to achieve a circular economy. By reviewing case studies as presented in the most recent literature published since the year 2010 from European countries on the recycling of post-consumer packaging waste of glass, metals, paper, and plastics, this study contributes to answer this question. In the first stage, the review found 644 articles matching with the search terms and published since the year 2010. Of these, 46 remained for an in-depth analysis, since 319 did not present case studies as defined in the scope of this article. The articles reviewed provide a good overview on the state of knowledge on increasing recycling of post-consumer packaging waste by improved separate collection, material recovery facilities, and waste incineration bottom ash treatment. Additional information and case studies, however, are required, particularly large-scale experiments to test new separate collection systems, large-scale with different feedstock material at the most-modern material recovery facilities and waste incineration bottom ash treatment plants.

Plastic packaging flows in Europe: A hybrid input‐output approach

AbstractThe European Union (EU) set ambitious goals toward more sustainable use of plastics, but the basis for measuring performance and monitoring progress toward these goals remains inadequate due to a limited understanding of the complex systems behind plastic consumption. In this work, we study the region‐wide material flows of plastics related to packaging in 2014 using a hybrid approach that combines data on the production and end‐of‐life management of plastic packaging with a monetary input‐output model for the EU. The approach enables us to gain insight into interindustry flows and the connection between production and final demand. We map supply chains with a relatively high resolution, including polymer types, packaging forms and application categories. Results estimate the total packaging placed on the market (POM) and then discarded amounted to 18,000 kt., excluding a net increase in stocks of 500 kt. This means that waste generation could have been up to 15% higher than accounted in official statistics, reinforcing potential underreporting accounts as well as remaining data gaps. Thirty‐five percent of postconsumer packaging waste was directed toward recycling. However, only 5% contributed to new domestic packaging production, a reflection of the broad challenges to plastic circularity. Although first steps are taken in this work, we point to an acute lack of information on industrial streams, compounded by missing policy focus, for example, on transport packaging. We suggest areas for deeper investigation and emphasize the potential of hybrid approaches to establishing baselines and assessment of both production and consumption‐side mitigation strategies.

Post-Consumer plastic packaging waste management in Indonesia: a producer responsibility approach

In a country with a large and diverse population such as Indonesia, the waste problem is difficult to solve, especially in urban areas. The growth of the population in urban areas has been accompanied by their rapid development of infrastructure and industrial growth. The dynamic lifestyle of urban communities changes their consumption behavior to products that are more practical in packaging. There are fundamental things that arise in the waste management system in Indonesia, including limited waste management capacity in the regions, inadequate infrastructure, implementation of regulations, and a lack of public concern, including the manufacturing industry, on waste management issues. Through the approach of the concept of extended producer responsibility (EPR). However, EPR concept implementation in developing countries is still lacking, where the collection and recycling system has not been adequately addressed. On the other hand, the industrial sector does not yet have enough attention to expand its product responsibilities for the post-consumption stage. This article presents an overview of current practices of post-consumer packaging waste management through an extended producer responsibility mechanism in Indonesia. More specifically, this study focused on consumer goods manufacturing industries. Based on the literature study, various industrial efforts have been shown to adopt the EPR concept in handling its product packaging waste.

Development and application of a predictive modelling approach for household packaging waste flows in sorting facilities

Household packaging waste sorting facilities consist of complex networks of processes to separate diverse waste streams. These facilities are a key first step to re-enter materials into the recycling chain. However, so far there are no general methods to predict the performance of such sorting facilities, i.e. how efficiently the heterogeneous packaging waste is sorted into fractions with value for further recycling. In this paper, a model of the material flow in a sorting facility is presented, which allows changing the incoming waste composition, split factors on the sorting units as well as the setup of the sorting facility. The performance of the sorting facility is judged based on the purity of the output material (grade) and the recovery of the input material. A validation of the model was performed via a case study on Belgian post-consumer packaging waste with a selection of typical waste items that can be found in this stream. Moreover, the model was used to predict the possible sorting qualities of future Belgian post-consumer packaging waste after an extension of the allowed waste packaging items in the waste stream. Finally, a sensitivity analysis was performed on the split factors, which are a key data source in the model. Overall, the developed model is flexible and able to predict the performance of packaging waste sorting facilities as well as support waste management and design for recycling decisions, including future design of packaging, to ensure proper sorting and separation.

Rethinking and optimising post-consumer packaging waste: A sentiment analysis of consumers’ perceptions towards the introduction of a deposit refund scheme in Scotland

Packaging waste production, especially single-use containers, is exerting detrimental effects on terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, including human health. To internalise the externalities associated with single-use containers, different instruments, including a deposit refund scheme (DRS), have been operationalised in many countries. Therefore, DRS is introduced in Scotland to reduce plastic litters by increasing recycling rates and incentivising pro-environmental behavioural change. This study addresses the complexity of single-use plastic containers by analysing consumers’ perceptions regarding the introduction of DRS in Scotland. Using 940 comments from the BBC “Have Your Say” messageboard, this study adopts sentiment analysis to understand consumers’ opinions about the introduction and implementation of DRS in Scotland. Findings suggest that a UK-wide scheme that is similar in terms of operations and structure is required for DRS to be successful. While consumers’ knowledge and opinions about DRS are mixed, the efficacy of DRS including its relevance is questioned and raises doubts about its contribution to sustainability. The findings imply the need for UK countries to negotiate and collaborate on appropriate and attractive interventions in addressing post-consumer single-use plastic containers. The implications of the findings for policy and practice, especially in improving the operations of DRS are further discussed.

Inorganic fluorescent marker materials for identification of post-consumer plastic packaging

Current plastic packaging waste management practices in Europe, but also in other countries require improvement due to legal and societal requirements. To meet high recycling rates, significant changes among others in post-consumer packaging waste sorting become necessary. This waste stream is dominated by plastic packaging. Inorganic fluorescent tracer materials (oxide crystals doped with ytterbium Yb3+ sensitizer ions and either erbium (Er3+), holmium (Ho3+) or thulium (Tm3+) activator ions) enable a sorting criterion which is independent of the properties of the packaging materials. The authors propose to use up-conversion fluorescence as a unique mean for polymer marking and product identification. To this end, PE-HD film samples, with 10, 100 and 1000 ppm of marker concentration in different polymer matrix colours (semi-transparent, yellow, green, and black) were irradiated with 980 nm diode laser radiation, with an excitation intensity up to 10 W/cm2. The performance of three different marker types with their maximum emission in green, red, and NIR was measured and assessed both with and without polymer matrix. Moreover, PE-HD sample bottles with tracers were tested, and a tracer regime for specific code generation for improved polymer identification is proposed.

The degree and source of plastic recyclates contamination with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

In this research, the degree and source of recyclates contamination with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) was studied in eight different polyolefin recyclate samples; four originating from post-consumer packaging waste and four originating from a mixed source (post-industrial, post-commercial, and post-consumer). The aim was to assess the applicability of these recyclates in the different products' categories. Furthermore, the impact of previous contamination with PAH was excluded by analysing pure plastics before and after undergoing simulated recycling processes. Polythene recyclates originating from post-consumer plastic packaging waste had lower concentrations of the 16-US-EPA PAH (922.15 ± 420.75 μg kg−1) in comparison to the ones of a mixed origin (2155.43 ± 991.85 μg kg−1), r = −0.35, p > 0.05. The degree of recyclates contamination with PAH was always within the REACH limits for consumer products (<1.0 mg kg−1). On the other hand, only polythene recyclate sample originating from post-commercial waste did not comply with the REACH limits for children articles (0.5 mg kg−1). Hence, the source of plastic waste defines the quality of recyclates. All in all, the results indicated that the contamination of polyolefin recyclates with PAH is attributed to the material's previous contamination, or the sorption of plastics to organic compounds from the surrounding environment. Exposing plastics containing PAH additives to heat during extrusion could result in further accumulation of PAH in plastics.

Design from recycling: A complex mixed plastic waste case study

With today’s continued drive to increase recycling rates of plastics, the low-hanging fruit of clean mono-streams of plastic waste has long since been picked. If Europe’s ambitious recycling targets are to be met, plastics waste streams that have until now been labeled ‘problematic’ and have consistently been sent to incineration, must be considered as well. One such stream is the sink fraction obtained from float-sink sorting of mixed post-consumer packaging waste. It is a very complex stream in terms of composition. Moreover, it contains a sizeable amount of PVC, which is considered detrimental to further mechanical recycling of any mixed plastic waste. Within the current research, the sink fraction was extensively analyzed for composition and mechanical properties, as well as treated for removal of PVC and non-ferrous metals. Subsequently, the Design from Recycling strategy was applied to successfully develop a new product with this material, called the Greentile. The Greentile was effectively manufactured and found to be a useful construction element for slanted green roofs.

Post-consumer packaging waste from express delivery in China

Express delivery plays a vital role in modern economy, but also brings great concern on post-consumer packaging waste. This study is therefore designed to characterize the material flows and environmental implications of post-consumer packaging waste from express delivery in China. While express delivery packaging uses mainly recycled materials, post-consumer packaging wastes are only partially recycled in China. In addition, plastic packaging materials are mainly produced from recycled agricultural films and contain chemical residues from pesticide applications which may have significant health impacts on employees and consumers in the express delivery industry. Policy suggestions are provided for government, express delivery service providers, and consumers to mitigate environmental impacts of post-consumer packaging waste from China’s booming express delivery industry.

Characterization of odorous contaminants in post-consumer plastic packaging waste using multidimensional gas chromatographic separation coupled with olfactometric resolution.

The increasing world population with their growing consumption of goods escalates the issue of sustainability concepts with increasing demands in recycling technologies. Recovery of post-consumer packaging waste is a major topic in this respect. However, contamination with odorous constituents currently curtails the production of recycling products that meet the high expectations of both consumers and industry. To guarantee odor-free recyclates, the main prerequisite is to characterize the molecular composition of the causative odorants in post-consumer plastic packaging waste. However, targeted characterization of odorous trace contaminants among an abundance of volatiles is a major challenge and requires specialized and high-resolution analytical approaches. For this aim, post-consumer packaging waste was characterized by sensory analysis and two-dimensional high resolution gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry and olfactometry. The 33 identified odorants represent various structural classes as well as a great diversity of smell impressions with some of the compounds being identified in plastics for the first time. Substances unraveled within this study provide insights into sources of odorous contamination that will require specific attention in the future in terms of screening and prevention in recycling products.

The vocabulary of post consumer packaging waste in the built environments: A qualitative study

The vocabulary of post consumer packaging waste in the built environments: A qualitative study

Substitution potentials of recycled HDPE and wood particles from post-consumer packaging waste in Wood–Plastic Composites

The market share of Wood–Plastic Composites (WPC) is small but expected to grow sharply in Europe. This raises some concerns about suitable wood particles needed in the wood-based panels industry in Europe. Concerns are stimulated by the competition between the promotion of wooden products through the European Bioeconomy Strategy and wood as an energy carrier through the Renewable Energy Directive. Cascade use of resources and valorisation of waste are potential strategies to overcome resource scarcity. Under experimental design conditions, WPC made from post-consumer recycled wood and plastic (HDPE) were compared to WPC made from virgin resources. Wood content in the polymer matrix was raised in two steps from 0% to 30% and 60%. Mechanical and physical properties and colour differences were characterized. The feasibility of using cascaded resources for WPC is discussed. Results indicate the technical and economic feasibility of using recycled HDPE from packaging waste for WPC. Based on technical properties, 30% recycled wood content for WPC is feasible, but economic and political barriers of efficient cascading of biomass need to be overcome.

Enhanced rigidity of recycled polypropylene from packaging waste by compounding with talc and high‐ crystallinity polypropylene

AbstractPolypropylene (PP) constituted 30% of the collected material in a Swedish collection system for rigid plastic packaging waste. The PP fraction was however a complex mixture of grades with widely different properties. In order to enhance the rigidity of the recycled PP, modified grades were prepared by compounding with talc and/or a virgin high‐crystallinity PP grade. Adding 20–40% of high‐crystallinity PP enhanced the stiffness and yield strength without impairing the impact resistance. A composite material consisting of 20% of this grade, 20% talc and 60% recycled PP gave mechanical properties similar to those of a commercial talc‐filled PP compound used for demanding engineering applications. The present study demonstrates that recycled PP derived from post‐consumer packaging waste can also be made useful for demanding engineering applications. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley &amp; Sons, Ltd.