post-Cold War Era Research Articles

Role of Economic Rights in the Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action: What is missing in the discussion

This paper examines the Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action (VDPA), adopted in 1993, as a pivotal document in the post-Cold War era that aimed to consolidate and reaffirm universal human rights principles. While the VDPA successfully highlighted the rights of marginalized groups such as women, children, indigenous people, and those with disabilities, it notably falls short in addressing economic rights. The paper argues that the VDPA’s lack of clear guidance on economic rights is a significant omission, especially given the economic upheavals of the 1990s, including high unemployment and the transition to market economies. Through an analysis of primary and secondary sources, the paper reveals that the VDPA’s failure to include detailed provisions for economic rights leaves a critical gap in the protection of individuals’ right to economic participation and well-being. The conclusion calls for a reorganization of human rights frameworks to include economic rights as essential for the realization of human dignity and equality.

“You forgot Poland?” Polish involvement in the Iraq war and its aftermath through a postcolonial lens

ABSTRACT This article examines Polish participation in the Iraq war (2003–2008) and its aftermath through a postcolonial lens within the context of Warsaw’s foreign policy choices in the post-Cold War era. After the fall of communism, Poland attempted to join “core” Western countries and institutions, while simultaneously distancing itself from the countries of the “periphery”. The article argues that Poland has operated in a liminal space during the Iraq war and its aftermath as it has been treated as an “internal other” of the West, and at the same time has “othered” the Iraqi periphery. The article does this by applying three key postcolonial theories to the case study: Said’s concept of orientalism, Coronil’s concept of occidentalism and Spivak’s ideas related to the subaltern. The article finds the following to be true: (a) Poland has been orientalised by core Western states while it has also orientalised the Iraqi and Middle Eastern periphery, (b) Poland has generally been a willing participant of occidentalist strategies concerning Iraq and the Middle East and (c) Western core states have attempted to speak for/silence Poland while Poland has spoken for/silenced the Iraqi/Middle Eastern periphery.

Allies in the Making: India’s Strategic Partnerships in the Indo-Pacific Strategy

This research explores and analyzes India’s evolving strategic partnerships in the Indo-Pacific region, particularly in the context of increasing Chinese assertiveness and global geopolitical shifts. The current geopolitical landscape, marked by Chinese activities along the Indian border, in the Taiwan Strait, and throughout the Indo-Pacific, underscores the urgent need for cooperation among like-minded nations on regional and global issues. Central to this study is examining the significant transformations in India’s foreign policy since the 1990s. This includes an analysis of the Look East Policy as India’s strategic response to the post-Cold War era, its evolution into the Act East Policy, and India’s emerging role on the international stage through active participation in the Indo-Pacific Strategy. These components collectively underscore India’s strategic realignment and its broader implications on regional dynamics and global diplomacy. Subsequently, the research delves into the burgeoning strategic collaboration between India and Taiwan, focusing on initiating strategic dialogues and progressing from democratic partners to crucial collaborators in constructing the Indo-Pacific supply chain. Furthermore, the research will analyze India’s strategic responses amid increasing tensions in the Taiwan Strait, exploring how it navigates the complex diplomatic and security challenges presented by its One China stance. This includes examining India’s maneuvers within the broader geopolitical framework of the region, highlighting its efforts to balance national security interests with diplomatic engagements.

The Function of International Law in Modern International Relations: A Constructivist Perspective

Following World War II, the ongoing process of globalisation led to a proliferation of international conflicts and disputes, prompting an increase in the application and regulation of international law. International law, as a legally binding framework for the rights and responsibilities of sovereign states and other entities with international status, has been crucial in reducing global strife, maintaining peace and promoting cooperation. The post-Cold War era coincided with the rise of constructivist theory, which offers a sociological perspective on world politics, emphasising social normative structures over economic material ones. This perspective underscores the influential role of ideas, norms, and culture in shaping state behaviour constructively. Theoretically, constructivist theories within international relations elucidate the legal function of international law while bolstering its authority and status; thereby further explaining its significance within global affairs. The research encompasses three main components: First, an exploration of the theoretical underpinnings of international law and an analysis of constructivism within the field of international relations will be presented. Secondly, a detailed examination of specific operational mechanisms in modern international relations and their contribution to establishing an orderly framework will be undertaken; and thirdly case analysis to examine how these mechanisms have influenced specific events thus revealing their practical impact. Ultimately concluding that as a normative institutional construct, international law has significantly contributed towards rule-making processes conflict resolution efforts as well as maintaining order within global relations while also highlighting that its construction is an ongoing evolutionary process necessitating continual adjustment within the broader context.

Post-Cold War Era UN Collaboration with Non-UN Military for Conflict Management in Africa

Abstract This research explores the factors associated with the success or failure of European Union (EU) military bridging operations supporting United Nations (UN) peacekeeping in Africa. This study defines the success of eufor bridging operations as those in which a subsequent UN mission was able to continue operations after assuming responsibilities from eufor. This raises two factors associated with success and failure: integration and adaptation. Two hypotheses are formulated regarding the respective parameters for achieving bridging operations goals that lead to their success. To examine the hypotheses, this study conducts a comparative analysis with two EU bridging operations, one in the Democratic Republic of Congo as a success case and the other in Chad and the Central African Republic as a failure. This study aims to produce new knowledge in the field of peacekeeping operations, practical policies, and general considerations on the ground. It also seeks to further understanding of bridging operations and develop better opportunities for designing future operations.

Bringing technology into the balance of power politics: ‘network balancing’ between the United States and China

As the world became increasingly interconnected in the post-Cold War era, the concept of security within the IR field has been extended to include non-military aspects such as economic, demographic and environmental aspects. Yet, the technological aspect has not received much attention within the field until recently. While the importance of technologies has been recognised for their impact on the contours of world politics in existing studies, their conceptualisation within the discipline has remained quite limited; they have been mostly taken as a black-boxed exogenous factor rather than something integral to how international politics are carried out. The lack of clear conceptual and analytical frameworks makes it difficult to incorporate technology as a core component of international relations discussions. Hence, as an attempt to complement the existing IR scholarship by bringing technology into the core discussion of the field, this article investigates the link between network technology and the balancing strategies of great powers by introducing a new analytical framework called the ‘network balancing’ model. The model is then applied to the case of ongoing US-China rivalry over information and communications technologies.

Assessing Japan’s Taiwan Policy: Systemic Clarity, Political Survival and Bureaucratic Prudence

ABSTRACT What are the patterns of Japan’s foreign policy behavior toward Taiwan in the post-Cold War era? It is generally taken for granted that the origin of Japan’s foreign policy to Taiwan has been derived from a unitary strategic calculation related to East Asian international politics and its maritime security in the Asia-Pacific region. This conventional interpretation is insufficient. While external pressure and states’ relative material capabilities within the structure of the international system are crucial in explaining Japan’s policy toward Taiwan, interpretations based solely on the system level of analysis fail to provide a persuasive explanation of Japan’s foreign policy behavior. By conducting three case studies in 2006, 2019 and 2021 through the theoretical lens of neoclassical realism and empirical investigation based on primary and secondary Japanese-language sources, this article argues that Japan’s Taiwan policy has been shaped by the combination of three factors: the degree of systemic clarity at the international level, the Japanese prime minister’s political survival and bureaucratic prudence over the Taiwan issue at the domestic level. Since 2021, Japan has adopted a subtle approach to Taiwan, driven more by a defensive and precautionary response to the heightened sense of crisis across the Taiwan Strait.

Thirty Years' Crisis: The Decline of U.S. Hegemony and the Rise of China

This article examines the current global landscape, characterized by the decline of US hegemony and the rise of China, and draws parallels to Carr's "Twenty Years' Crisis." The implications of these shifts are explored, including the resurgence of realism, China's ascent as a global power, challenges to US leadership, and the potential risks of a global military conflict. The resurgence of power politics challenges the prevailing belief that it had diminished in the post-Cold War era. Territorial disputes and the pursuit of national interests by major powers such as Russia and China highlight the enduring relevance of realism. China's rapid rise as a global power echoes the emergence of the United States as a superpower in the past. Meanwhile, the United States faces challenges as its economic and technological superiority wanes, with China posing a significant threat to its leadership. In conclusion, the current global landscape, similar to Carr's "Twenty Years' Crisis," demands a holistic approach to understanding and addressing the complexities of our time.

Dynamic clustering of Asian regionalisms: Empirical testing of United Nations multilateral treaty participation by social network analysis

This paper investigates the evolving clustering and historical progression of “Asian regionalisms” concerning their involvement in multilateral treaties deposited in the United Nations system. We employ criteria such as geographic proximity, historical connections, cultural affinities, and economic interdependencies to identify twenty-eight candidate countries from East Asia, Southeast Asia, South Asia, and Central Asia for this empirical testing. Using a social network analysis approach, we model the network of these twenty-eight Asian state actors alongside 600 major treaties from the United Nations system, identifying clusters among Asian states by assessing similarities in their treaty participation behavior. Specifically, we observe dynamic changes in these clusters across three key historical eras: Post-war reconstruction and transformation (1945–1968), Cold War tensions and global transformations (1969–1989), and post-Cold War era and globalization (1990–present). Employing the Louvain cluster detection algorithm, the results reveal the evolution in cluster numbers and changes in membership status throughout the world timeline. The results also identify the current situation of six distinct Asian clusters based on states’ inclinations to engage or abstain from multilateral treaties across six policy domains. These findings provide a foundation for further research on the trajectories of Asian regionalisms amidst evolving global dynamics and offer insights into potential alliances, cooperation, or conflicts within the region.

Changing role of security alliances in the post-Cold War era

Changing role of security alliances in the post-Cold War era

NATIONAL SECURITY AND THE TOOLS OF CYBER POWER: A REVIEW ON THE AREAS OF STATE HEGEMONIA

In the post-Cold War era, in terms of international relations, 'cyber security' emerges as a significant security issue for the spheres of state sovereignty beyond the personal sphere. In addition to the harmful effects of cyber threats on the functioning of public institutions and organizations, İt also raises a problem for states, such as managing perception operations by creating a society more open to manipulative influences. In our globalizing world, as the most important actor of the system, the States' dependence on each other has increased, and at the same time, there has been a period in which the fundamental security issues are intertwined for the States. In such a situation where it is not possible for the States to define themselves outside the system, classical realist approaches are insufficient to explain the changing -and increasingly abstracted-security areas. Nation-states must develop more complex skills and prioritize cooperation to deal with these new security threats. In our study, which focuses on the national cyber security perceptions of states, the measures taken by the States in the cyber world on priority issues, such as institutional functioning and survival problems, are analyzed in terms of national security strategies. On the theme of 'new security', the main focus is the necessity for actors to develop new defense capabilities within the framework of the 'quick response and easy adaptation' in the face of increasing and diversifying cyber threats. In our study, which deals with the efforts of digital Nation-states to increase their effectiveness in cyberspace in determining the 21st-century sovereignty areas and the increase in their tendency towards cyber warfare tools, the active/passive defense methods followed by the States in the perspective of cyber security strategies have been evaluated. In this context, it is the most acceptable method for the States to prefer the 'active defense model' in order to avoid cyber attacks against vital institutions such as education and health.

Settling Softly: Ending War and Making Peace in Divided Societies

This paper investigates possible sociopolitical reconciliatory mechanisms to garner support for peacemaking in conflict-torn societies. Building on the Kurdish question in Turkey, associated with a four-decade-long armed conflict that has spilled over into neighboring Syria and Iraq, we identify policies and framing that can attract support for a political solution to the conflict. We highlight the need for a sociopolitical reconciliatory approach that addresses both the hopes of the warring minority and the fears of the majority. The results from an original nationwide survey indicate that minority demands can initially be addressed through a ‘soft settlement,’ lying between individual and collective rights. Our results point to the need to relax the concept of negotiated settlement, which has become the most frequent approach to ending internal armed conflicts in the post-Cold War era.

The New World Order: Geopolitical Shifts in the Post-Cold War Era

The end of the Cold War marked a pivotal moment in global history, widely seen as the commencement of the "New World Order." The new world order in the post-cold war witnesses the decrease in the powers of classical states and their inter-states matters for restoring international peace, and emerging of other threats like religious militancy, ethnic conflicts, unfair economic competition, north-south conflict, terrorism, etc. This research presents a comprehensive analysis of the challenges, dynamics and potential of the post-Cold War era. This research aims to explore the complexities of “New World Order” in post-Cold War era in international relations through an examination of global political, economic, and socio-cultural transformations, to analyze the geopolitical landscape by focusing on the increasing involvement of non-state players during the post-Cold War era in reshaping economies, society, and conflict dynamics. The study utilizes qualitative research approach to conduct this study.

Understanding the Quad’s Climate Diplomacy in the Indo-Pacific Region

The Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (popularly known as Quad) emphasizes building a free, open, inclusive, secure, stable and resilient Indo-Pacific region. For this, it adopts an action-oriented practical approach to provide holistic security for all types of vulnerabilities, risks and threats. The region is vulnerable to various climate change impacts, including sea-level rise, floods and droughts, heatwaves and typhoons or cyclones. To strengthen climate security, the Quad set up a Working Group on Climate Change and launched practical joint climate action, namely ‘The Quad Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation Package’ (Q-CHAMP), which equally focuses on mitigation and adaptation/resilience aspects of climate action in the region. It also stressed making climate diplomatic efforts with other countries and regional organizations like ASEAN to set up mechanisms for joint climate action to address climate change effectively. Against this backdrop, this article aims to discuss joint climate initiatives taken by the Quad under its climate diplomacy to address climate change in the Indo-Pacific region. This study has also addressed a fundamental question: To what extent does climate diplomacy make the Quad an appropriate strategic platform that provides a suitable political environment for cooperation, negotiation and dialogue to address complex security issues in the post-Cold War era? This qualitative study has been completed based on a textual analysis of the data relating to the Quad’s joint climate action. The article argues that as a minilateral cooperative platform, the Quad’s joint climate action in the form of a Climate Working Group and the Q-CHAMP would be able to mitigate greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions and build the adaptive capability of communities to adapt to the various climate change impacts, as well as contribute to establishing a secure, stable and resilient region along with a noticeable contribution to meeting the objectives of the Paris Agreement at the global level.

One Universal Civilization: Superiority and Eurocentric Conception of the Rest

The prevailing notion suggests a universal or human civilization, positing all as subsets of a shared human experience. This article critiques this perspective, arguing that the contemporary concept of human civilization is predominantly synonymous with Western civilization. This article will elucidate its argument by drawing upon the insights of Western scholars in the field of civilizational studies. Subsequently, it will undertake a critical examination and assessment of the Western discourse, evaluating its outcomes as evidenced in contemporary foreign policy shaped by the historical backdrop of colonialism. The article uses direct quotations and historical narratives to not only scrutinize the inclination to depict Western civilization as singular, extraordinary, and unparalleled but also to highlight the persistent tendency to undervalue the importance of other civilizations, often termed as 'the rest'. It relies on primary materials authored by Western scholars concerning the notion of civilization, supplemented by secondary references citing influential intellectuals in the field. In addition to primary sources such as interviews and contemporary statements regarding pertinent events, secondary sources encompass literature on civilization within the framework of global south studies. The notion of Western civilization is depicted as a constructed political construct utilized to perpetuate Western hegemony, engender othering, and perpetuate colonialist agendas. This dynamic persists even in the post-Cold War era, wherein ongoing Western hegemony perpetuates dominance over non-Western powers. Instances reflecting this neo-colonialist paradigm include the US intervention in Iraq, the conflict in Afghanistan, and the ongoing Israeli military campaign in Gaza as of late 2023.

Shaping Modern Egypt: A Captivating Tale Of History and Political Transformation

Purpose: This article examines Egypt's transformation from an Ottoman province to a modern state, starting with Napoleon Bonaparte's 1798 incursion and the modernization efforts of Mehmet Ali Pasha. It covers key historical periods, including the monarchy, the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936, and the Cold War and post-Cold War era. Method: Using a historical-analytical approach, the study explores the eras of Gamal Abdel Nasser, Anwar Sadat, and Hosni Mubarak. It highlights Nasser's socialist policies and ties with the Soviet Union, Sadat's economic liberalization and the Camp David Accords, and Mubarak's economic reforms and political repression leading to the 2011 Arab Spring. Conclusion: The article critically analyzes Egypt's struggle for independence, democratic governance, and socio-economic development. It emphasizes the need for strengthening democratic institutions, diversifying the economy, enhancing education and healthcare, and promoting political inclusivity. Implication of the Research: The research offers recommendations to help Egypt build on its historical legacy and ensure a prosperous, democratic, and stable future, addressing key socio-political challenges. Originality of the Research: This article provides a nuanced historical account and analysis of Egypt's political evolution, integrating modernization and dependency theories, and offers valuable insights for scholars, policymakers, and practitioners interested in Middle Eastern politics and development.

The Central Asian Countries Relations with Russia and China: The Impact of Sensitivities, Dependencies, Threat Perceptions and Regional Organizations

In their relations with Russia and China, Central Asian countries have been influenced by their sensitivities regarding independence and their strong ties with the two states regarding security, economy and trade. Central Asian countries have shown they are unwilling to compromise their sovereignty, independence and territorial integrity while maintaining intensive relations with the two states. The regional organizations led by Russia and China are also inevitable partners of regional states. They took utmost care not to fall under hegemony within these organizations. Their main strategy has been to balance the organizations and the two states against each other and try to protect their interests and sovereignty by creating a network of relations among many actors. This article analyses relations of Central Asian countries with Russia and China in the post-Cold War era by focusing on the relevant factors and aims to shed light on regional and global policies and attitudes and policies of regional countries.

POST-SOVIET ASIAN POLICY: RUSSIAN DIPLOMATIC ACTIVITY IN CHINA AND INDIA (1991–1999)

This article is an attempt to revisit the Asian policy of the Russian Federation in the Post-Cold War era. More specifically, the aim of this article is to determine the origins of Moscow’s current strategic alliances with China and India in a historical trajectory from 1991 to 1999. To this end, the article focused on Russian diplomatic activities, state visits, cooperation strategies and signed agreements within this timeframe. Then, in the context of these diplomatic efforts, the article discussed how the priorities of each government could affect these initiatives with a focus on their national concerns, geopolitical imperatives and global strategies. Following these discussions, the article concluded that a revival of global status was at the heart of Russia’s Asian diplomacy. Moreover, it was concluded that while foreign relations with China and India had emerged from two different historical processes, the common interests and imperatives that were mutually perceived by these states were crucial in reaching strategic agreements and shaping post-Soviet alliances.

Exploring the self-as-memorial through arts-based writing

In 2021, a Cold War Veterans Memorial Commission was announced and immediately, I became interested in this concept. Who are the veterans? What are the memories? And what are the repercussions of giving permanence to this specific history during the post-Cold War era? Writing is the only form I can conceive of for such a memorial, as it allows for a post-structural analysis of memory, experience and life. Writing as a method of inquiry allows one to consider the relationship between personal narrative, materiality and research. In this article, I explore these questions through a braided narrative that weaves together family narratives, historical time periods and imaginings of myself-as-memorial. But like braiding hair, or yarn, some threads become tangled with other threads, representing an entanglement of time and experience, and of individual and collective memories. Not meant to be easily delineated, transitions between narratives are used to evoke the sudden, and sometimes abrupt, emergence of memory. Additionally, by positioning a memorial as a person, questions of the humanness of memory and the nonhumanness of memory objects arise.

Walking the Earth between Ezekiel and Kung Fu 's Caine: Pulp Fiction and 1990s (Popular) Culture between Irony and 'Reenchantment'

Abstract: In the cultural milieu of the 1990s, Quentin Tarantino's Pulp Fiction (1994) emerges as a compelling exploration of spiritual and moral ambiguity. The film's flamboyantly postmodern narrative intertwines themes of grace and the miraculous, culminating in moments of profound existential reflection—with an ironic twist. Set against the backdrop of a post-Cold War era marked by uncertainty, disillusionment, and hope, Pulp Fiction navigates complex moral and ethical terrain. This paper analyzes Tarantino's movie alongside contemporaneous auteurs such as the Coens and Fincher, exploring their shared engagement with themes of justice, morality, and existential meaning. Through a lens of cultural reenchantment, these films illuminate the moral dilemmas of an era in transition.