Effect Of Portion Size Research Articles

‘It's not something I really think about’: Parents' perspectives and practices about how much food to offer in early childhood

AbstractChildren are born with an innate capacity to self‐regulate their energy intake, but cues from the food environment can undermine children's self‐regulation, promoting overconsumption, and challenging energy balance. The size of the portion offered by parents and caregivers has been shown to be correlated with how much food children consume, which is known as the portion size effect. Furthermore, some parental feeding practices may interfere with children's ability to self‐regulate. The present research explored parents' perspectives and practices about how much food they offer to their children in Uruguay. Forty‐two in‐depth interviews with parents of children between 6 months and 5 years old were conducted. Results showed that parental decisions about portion sizes for their children were mostly unconscious and intuitive. Parents were unconcerned about portion sizes, mainly due to the belief that children are able to self‐regulate. Although parents identified themselves as mainly responsible for deciding how much food to serve their children, the majority reported to be responsive when their child refuses to eat or finish their meal, or when they request to eat more. Coercive feeding practices were only mentioned by a minority of parents.Practical ApplicationsResults from the present work stress the need to raise awareness of children's vulnerability to portion size effects, since portion size selection seems to be a highly arbitrary process. Further research is needed to identify the best approaches to disseminate information among parents and caregivers to promote appropriate portion sizes for children, as well as responsive feeding practices.

The Cerebellar Response to Visual Portion Size Cues Is Associated with the Portion Size Effect in Children.

The neural mechanisms underlying susceptibility to eating more in response to large portions (i.e., the portion size effect) remain unclear. Thus, the present study examined how neural responses to portion size relate to changes in weight and energy consumed as portions increase. Associations were examined across brain regions traditionally implicated in appetite control (i.e., an appetitive network) as well as the cerebellum, which has recently been implicated in appetite-related processes. Children without obesity (i.e., BMI-for-age-and-sex percentile < 90; N = 63; 55% female) viewed images of larger and smaller portions of food during fMRI and, in separate sessions, ate four meals that varied in portion size. Individual-level linear and quadratic associations between intake (kcal, grams) and portion size (i.e., portion size slopes) were estimated. The response to portion size in cerebellar lobules IV-VI was associated with the quadratic portion size slope estimated from gram intake; a greater response to images depicting smaller compared to larger portions was associated with steeper increases in intake with increasing portion sizes. Within the appetitive network, neural responses were not associated with portion size slopes. A decreased cerebellar response to larger amounts of food may increase children's susceptibility to overeating when excessively large portions are served.

Poorer inhibitory control was related to greater food intake across meals varying in portion size: A randomized crossover trial

Individuals eat more food when larger portions are served, and this portion size effect could be influenced by inhibitory control (the ability to suppress an automatic response). Inhibitory control may also relate to obesogenic meal behaviors such as eating faster, taking larger bites, and frequent switching between meal components (such as bites of food and sips of water). In a randomized crossover design, 44 adults ate lunch four times in the laboratory. Lunch consisted of a pasta dish that was varied in portion size (400, 500, 600, or 700 g) along with 700 g of water. Meals were video-recorded to assess meal duration and bite and sip counts, which were used to determine mean eating rate (g/min), mean bite size (g/bite), and number of switches between bites and sips. Participants completed a food-specific stop-signal task, which was used to calculate Stop-Signal Reaction Time (SSRT). Across participants, SSRT values ranged from 143 to 306 msec, where greater SSRT indicates poorer inhibitory control. As expected, serving larger portions increased meal intake (p < 0.0001); compared to the smallest portion, intake of the largest increased by 121 ± 17 g (mean ± SEM). SSRT did not moderate the portion size effect (p = 0.34), but individuals with poorer inhibitory control ate more across all meals: 24 ± 11 g for each one SD unit increase in SSRT (p = 0.035). SSRT was not related to eating rate or bite size (both p > 0.13), but poorer inhibitory control predicted greater switching between bites and sips, such that 1.5 ± 0.7 more switches were made during meals for each one SD unit increase in SSRT (p = 0.03). These findings indicate that inhibitory control can contribute to overconsumption across meals varying in portion size, potentially in part by promoting switching behavior.

Socioeconomic position and the influence of food portion size on daily energy intake in adult females: two randomized controlled trials

BackgroundReducing portion sizes of commercially available foods could be an effective public health strategy to reduce population energy intake, but recent research suggests that the effect portion size has on energy intake may differ based on socioeconomic position (SEP).ObjectiveWe tested whether the effect of reducing food portion sizes on daily energy intake differed based on SEP.MethodsParticipants were served either smaller or larger portions of food at lunch and evening meals (N = 50; Study 1) and breakfast, lunch and evening meals (N = 46; Study 2) in the laboratory on two separate days, in repeated-measures designs. The primary outcome was total daily energy intake (kcal). Participant recruitment was stratified by primary indicators of SEP; highest educational qualification (Study 1) and subjective social status (Study 2), and randomisation to the order portion sizes were served was stratified by SEP. Secondary indicators of SEP in both studies included household income, self-reported childhood financial hardship and a measure accounting for total years in education.ResultsIn both studies, smaller (vs larger) meal portions led to a reduction in daily energy intake (ps < .02). Smaller portions resulted in a reduction of 235 kcal per day (95% CI: 134, 336) in Study 1 and 143 kcal per day (95% CI: 24, 263) in Study 2. There was no evidence in either study that effects of portion size on energy intake differed by SEP. Results were consistent when examining effects on portion-manipulated meal (as opposed to daily) energy intake.ConclusionsReducing meal portion sizes could be an effective way to reduce overall daily energy intake and contrary to other suggestions it may be a socioeconomically equitable approach to improving diet.Trial registrationThese trials were registered at www.clinicaltrials.gov as NCT05173376 and NCT05399836.

Children with lower ratings of executive functions have a greater response to the portion size effect

Deficits in executive functions (EFs), a set of cognitive processes related to self-regulation, are associated with the development of obesity. Prior studies from our group showed that lower food-cue related activation in brain regions implicated in self-regulation was related to a larger portion size effect. We tested the hypothesis that lower EFs in children would be positively related to the portion size effect. Healthy weight children aged 7–8 y (n = 88), who varied by maternal obesity status, participated in a prospective study. At baseline, the parent primarily in charge of feeding completed the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF2) to assess child EFs, including Behavioral (BRI), Emotional (ERI), and Cognitive (CRI) indices. At 4 baseline sessions, children consumed meals in which the portion sizes of foods (pasta, chicken nuggets, broccoli, and grapes) varied by visit (total meal weight of 769, 1011, 1256, or 1492g). Intake increased with increasing portions in a linear trajectory (p < 0.001). EFs moderated the portion size effect such that lower BRI (p = 0.003) and ERI (p = 0.006) were associated with steeper increases in intake as portions increased. As amount of food increased, children in the lowest functioning tertiles for BRI and ERI increased intake by 35% and 36%, respectively, compared to children in the higher tertiles. Increases in intake among children with lower EFs were for higher- but not lower-energy-dense foods. Thus, in healthy weight children who varied by obesity risk, lower parentally reported EFs were associated with a larger portion size effect, and these results were independent of child and parent weight status. Therefore, EFs may be target behaviors that could be strengthened to help children moderate excess intake in response to large portions of energy-dense foods.

Switching between bites of food and sips of water is related to food intake across meals varying in portion size

Individuals eat more when served more food, but little is known about how this portion size effect is moderated by meal-related characteristics, particularly the inclusion of water served as a beverage. Patterns of eating and drinking as well as consumption of water could affect satiation by modifying exposure to the sensory qualities of food. In a crossover design, 44 adults ate lunch in the laboratory once a week for 4 weeks and intake was measured. The meal was a pasta dish that was varied in portion size (400, 500, 600, or 700 g) plus 700 g of water. Meals were video-recorded to count bites and sips and the number of switches between them. Sensory-specific satiety (SSS) was evaluated as the relative decline in hedonic ratings of the pasta after consumption. Serving larger portions led to a curvilinear increase in food intake (p < 0.0001). Neither switching between bites and sips nor water intake moderated the portion size effect. Independent of portion served, across all meals switching more frequently was related to greater food consumption (5.7 ± 1.8 g more food consumed for each additional switch, p = 0.004). Greater water intake was also related to greater food intake across portions (1.1 ± 0.5 g more food consumed for each additional 10 g of water, p = 0.025), but this effect was not significant after accounting for switching (p = 0.38). The magnitude of SSS was unaffected by switching, suggesting that switching allowed greater food intake for a given hedonic decline. At a meal with a single food, intake was greater when larger portions were served and also when there was more switching between bites and sips. Switching between food and water may promote energy intake by attenuating the development of SSS.

Multisectoral Strategies Needed to Establish Healthy Portion Size Norms That Disincentivize Hyperpalatable, Energy-Dense Foods and Sugary Beverages in Food Environments Linked to Obesity and Diet-Related Chronic Diseases in the United States

Over 40 y, Americans have consumed larger portions of hyperpalatable, energy-dense foods, sugary beverages, and meals prepared at home and away from home, which have contributed to obesity and diet-related chronic diseases in the United States (US). This perspective article explores synergies between the portion size and food matrix effects, and their associated biological, physiological, environmental, and cultural susceptibilities for populations. Thereafter, we describe evidence of US public- and private-sector initiatives to reduce, standardize, and incentivize portion size norms to align with recommended servings to promote a healthy weight for children, adolescents, and adults. Practitioners could use the Individual plus Policy, System, and Environment (I + PSE) Framework to implement multisectoral strategies for the US government, businesses, and civil society organizations to establish healthy portion size norms aligned with servings recommended by the Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2020–2025, and to disincentivize overconsumption of hyperpalatable products to reduce obesity and chronic disease risks.

Eating rate and bite size were related to food intake across meals varying in portion size: A randomized crossover trial in adults

Serving larger portions leads to increased food intake, but behavioral factors that influence the magnitude of this portion size effect have not been well characterized. We investigated whether measures of eating microstructure such as eating rate and bite size moderated the portion size effect. We also explored how sensory-specific satiety (SSS; the relative hedonic decline of a food as it is eaten) was affected by eating microstructure and larger portions. In a randomized crossover design, 44 adults aged 18–68 y (66% women; 46% with overweight and obesity) ate lunch in the laboratory once a week for 4 weeks. The meal consisted of pasta that was varied in portion size (400, 500, 600, or 700 g) and 700 g of water. Meals were video-recorded to assess bite count and meal duration, which were used to calculate mean eating rate (g/min) and mean bite size (g/bite). At each meal participants also completed an assessment of SSS. The results showed that as larger portions were served, meal intake increased in a curvilinear manner (p < 0.0001). Measures of eating microstructure did not moderate the portion size effect but were related to intake across all portions; faster eating rate, larger bite size, higher bite count, and longer meal duration were associated with greater consumption at all meals (all p < 0.0001). SSS was not influenced by any measure of eating microstructure or by portion size (all p > 0.10). In summary, the portion size effect was not moderated by eating microstructure, but relatively faster eating rates and larger bite sizes at meals, along with large portions, combined to increase food intake.

Tackling obesity in aged-care homes: the effects of environmental cues

PurposeObesity among elderly consumers precipitates undesirable health outcomes. This study aims to investigate the effects of environmental cues on food intake of elderly consumers in an aged-care facility.Design/methodology/approachA longitudinal study conducted over 17 weeks in situ within an aged-care facility with 31 residents investigated how auditory (soothing music), olfactory (floral-scented candle) and visual (infographic on health benefits of the main meal component) cues influenced food intake quantity during a meal, while accounting for portion size effect (PSE).FindingsAnalysing the cross-sectional results of individual treatments and rounds did not reveal any consistent patterns in the influence of the three environmental cues. Longitudinal analyses, however, showed that the presence of auditory and olfactory cues significantly increased food intake, but the visual cue did not. Moreover, PSE was strong.Research limitations/implicationsExtending research into environmental factors from a commercial to a health-care setting, this study demonstrates how the presence of auditory and olfactory, but not cognitive cues, increased food intake behaviour among elderly consumers. It also shows that a cross-sectional approach to such studies would have yielded inconclusive or even misleading findings. Merely serving more would also lead to higher food intake amount.Practical implicationsEnvironmental factors should be a part of health-care providers’ arsenal to manage obesity. They are practical and relatively inexpensive to implement across different health-care settings. However, the same environmental factors would have opposite desired-effects with normal or underweight residents, and hence, aged-care facilities need to separate the dining experience (or mealtime) of obese and other residents. Quantity served should also be moderated to discourage overeating.Originality/valueWhile studies into managing obesity, particularly among older adults, have mainly focused on techniques such as pharmacotherapy treatments with drugs, dietary management or even lifestyle change, less attention has been given to the influence of environmental cues. This study, executed in situ within an aged-care facility, provided evidence of the importance of considering the impact of environmental factors on food intake to help reduce obesity.

Is There a “Gestalt Bias” in Indulgence? Subjectively Constructing Food Units Into Wholes (vs. Parts) Increases Desire to Eat and Actual Consumption

In the present work we extend research into the unit bias effect and its extension—the portion size effect—by demonstrating the existence of a “Gestalt bias.” Drawing on the tenets of Gestalt psychology, we show that a unit bias effect can be observed for food portions that are composed of identical basic units, but which are subjectively grouped into, or perceived as a Gestalt—a larger whole. In three studies, we find that such subjectively constructed food wholes constitute a new (perceptual) unit that is perceived bigger than the units it is constructed from, thereby prompting increased eating and desire to eat.

Do Behaviors Such As Eating Faster or Taking Larger Bites Moderate the Portion Size Effect?

ObjectivesIndividuals eat more when served larger portions, and this may be influenced by eating-related microstructural behaviors. In a controlled study, we explored whether microstructural components of eating such as eating rate, bite size, bite count, and meal duration influenced the portion size effect. MethodsIn a randomized crossover design, 44 adults aged 18 to 68 y (66% women; 45% with overweight or obesity) ate lunch in the laboratory once a week for four weeks. The meal consisted of a single dish of pasta (1.4 kcal/g) that was varied in portion size (400,500, 600, or 700 g) along with ∼700 g of water. Intake was assessed by weighing items before and after the meal. To characterize eating microstructure, meals were video-recorded to assess bite counts and meal duration, which were used to calculate mean eating rate (g/min) and mean bite size (g/bite). The influence of eating microstructure on the portion size effect was analyzed by random coefficients models. ResultsAs larger portions were served, meal intake increased in a curvilinear manner (P < 0.0001). Compared to the smallest portion, intake of the largest portion increased by a mean (±SEM) of 123 ± 16 g (43%). As portions were increased, there were similar increases in bite count (35%) and meal duration (38%; both P < 0.0001), but only small increases in mean bite size (8%; P = 0.019) and no significant change in eating rate (P = 0.92). Measures of eating microstructure did not moderate the portion size effect but did have main effects on intake across all portions. Individuals ate more at the meal when they ate faster, took larger bites, took more bites, or ate for longer (all P < 0.0001). Body mass index did not influence eating microstructure or the strength of the portion size effect but had a modest negative effect on intake across all meals (–5.9 ± 2.7 g/unit increase in BMI; P = 0.046). ConclusionsEating-related microstructural behaviors influenced meal intake across portions, but did not moderate the effect of portion size on intake. Individuals who ate faster and took larger bites ate more across all portions, possibly as a result of reduced oro-sensory exposure, which can delay meal termination. Targeted interventions to alter components of eating microstructure have the potential as strategies to reduce overconsumption. Funding SourcesNIDDK, Jenny Craig.

Promoting vegetable intake in preschool children: Independent and combined effects of portion size and flavor enhancement

This study investigated the independent and combined effects on preschool children's vegetable intake of serving a larger portion of vegetables and enhancing their flavor. In a crossover design, lunch was served in childcare centers once a week for four weeks to 67 children aged 3–5 y (26 boys, 41 girls). The meal consisted of two familiar vegetables (broccoli and corn) served with fish sticks, rice, ketchup, applesauce, and milk. Across the four meals, we varied the portion of vegetables (60 or 120 g total weight, served as equal weights of broccoli and corn) and served them either plain or enhanced (6.6% light butter and 0.5% salt by weight). All meals were consumed ad libitum and were weighed to determine intake. Doubling the portion of vegetables led to greater consumption of both broccoli and corn (both p < 0.0001) and increased meal vegetable intake by 68% (mean ± SEM 21 ± 3 g). Enhancing vegetables with butter and salt, however, did not influence their intake (p = 0.13), nor did flavor enhancement modify the effect of portion size on intake (p = 0.10). Intake of other meal components did not change when the vegetable portion was doubled (p = 0.57); thus, for the entire meal, the increase in vegetable consumption led to a 5% increase in energy intake (13 ± 5 kcal; p = 0.02). Ratings indicated that children had similar liking for the plain and enhanced versions of each vegetable (both p > 0.31). All versions of vegetables were well-liked, as indicated by ≥ 76% of the children rating them as “yummy” or “just okay”. Serving a larger portion of vegetables at a meal was an effective strategy to promote vegetable intake in children, but when well-liked vegetables were served, adding butter and salt was not necessary to increase consumption.

Out of the lab and into the wild: The influence of portion size on food intake in laboratory vs. real-world settings

External influences on eating behaviour, such as portion size, have been reliably shown to influence food intake in the laboratory. However, little research has examined whether laboratory settings under or overestimate the effect that external influences have on food intake compared to when studied in the real-world. In Study 1, 60 participants (mean age = 32 years) were randomized to consume a large (200 g) or small (100 g) portion of popcorn under controlled laboratory conditions and during a separate session in their home. Results showed that the effect of portion size on food intake was larger at home (d = 0.97) than in the laboratory (d = 0.56). Furthermore, participants reported feeling more relaxed eating at home compared to the laboratory. In Study 2, we examined whether comparable results were observed in a semi-naturalistic laboratory designed to resemble a home setting. 59 participants (mean age = 28 years) completed the same procedure as Study 1 in a standard and a semi-naturalistic laboratory setting. Although participants reported having higher levels of private self-awareness in the standard laboratory, the effect that portion size had on food intake did not differ between the standard laboratory (d = 0.50) and the semi-naturalistic laboratory (d = 0.49). The impact that external influences on eating, such as portion size, have on food intake in the real-world may be underestimated when studied under laboratory conditions.

Individual differences and moderating participant characteristics in the effect of reducing portion size on meal energy intake: Pooled analysis of three randomized controlled trials

Portion size impacts on the amount of energy consumed during a meal. However, research findings on participant characteristics that moderate the effect of portion size on energy intake are mixed. Using data pooled across three randomized control trials, we examined the impact of reducing meal portion size on meal energy intake in 111 adult participants varying in sex (55 M, 56 F), body weight (BMI range = 19–42) and a broad range of participant characteristics, including usual portion size, restrained, emotional and external eating, satiety responsiveness, plate clearing tendencies, concerns about wasting food and self-control. In each trial, a repeated-measures design was used and participants consumed three ad-libitum lunchtime meals differing in portion size; large-normal portion size condition (100%) vs. small-normal portion size condition (~ 75%) vs. smaller than normal portion size condition (~ 50%). In mixed ANOVAs, we did not find convincing evidence that any participant characteristic reliably moderated the impact that reducing portion size had on energy intake. For the majority of participants energy intake decreased when portion size was reduced and it was more common for participants to consistently reduce their energy intake than consume a similar amount when portion size was reduced. We also found little evidence that a sub-group of participants existed whose energy intake was consistently resistant to portion size reductions. Portion size may be a universal driver of energy intake, as reducing meal portion size appears to decrease meal energy intake among most people. Food portion downsizing may therefore be an equitable intervention approach to reducing population level energy intake.

The effect of a bread matrix on mastication of hazelnuts

The effect of the degree of nut mastication on bioavailability of their nutrients has been established previously. In contrast, the effect of incorporation of nuts into composite food matrixes on oral processing behaviour and structural breakdown has been studied scarcely. This study aimed to investigate the effect of incorporation of hazelnuts into bread matrixes in comparison with plain hazelnuts on bolus properties and chewing behaviour. Amount of plain hazelnuts was varied to investigate the effect of portion size on bolus properties and chewing behaviour. Bolus particle size distribution was obtained by image analysis of expectorated boli by n = 20 participants. Median bolus particle diameter (d50) and broadness of particle size distribution (b) were quantified by fitting the cumulative area distribution curve with a modified Rosin-Rammler function. Oral processing behaviour (number of chews, chewing time, chewing frequency) was quantified by means of a stopwatch. Mastication of two hazelnuts resulted in smaller d50 than mastication of six hazelnuts or mastication of two hazelnuts in white bread or baguette. Chewing time of two hazelnuts was significantly shorter than chewing time of six hazelnuts or chewing time of two hazelnuts in white bread or baguette, while chewing frequency did not differ between foods. d50 of six hazelnuts did not significantly differ from d50 of two hazelnuts in either bread matrix. Broadness b of the particle size distribution was significantly smaller for six hazelnuts compared to the other foods. We conclude that d50 was affected by bite size or bite volume rather than by incorporation of hazelnuts into bread. We suggest that incorporation of hazelnuts into bread matrixes has a relatively small impact on size of hazelnut bolus particles produced upon mastication.

Effectiveness of food-related cues and portion size effect

Food-related cues can increase the time a person spends in the dining room. Increasing the time a person spends dining can improve their food intake. Studies on the use of music and olfactory cues have produced conflicting results. This study explores whether the portion size effect (PSE), the portion served, influences a person's consumption and can explain the inconsistent results. The study focused on testing this phenomenon with residents in an aged-care home. Malnutrition is often a problem with residents in aged-care facilities. Exposing the residents to various cues (music, olfactory and infographics) over seven weeks with different portions of food served. Results showed that the cues did not significantly impact, but PSE did, casting doubts on studies that did not control for the portion served. Discussions of the academic and managerial implications are also provided.

Effects of snack portion size on anticipated and experienced hunger, eating enjoyment, and perceived healthiness among children

BackgroundLarge portion sizes encourage overconsumption. Prior studies suggest that this may be due to errors in anticipating the effects of portion size, although the studies were limited to adults and energy-dense foods.ObjectiveOur aim was to investigate potential anticipation errors related to the effects of portion size on hunger, eating enjoyment, and healthiness ratings among 8-to-11-year-old children, for snacks differing in energy density and healthiness perception, and as a function of initial hunger.MethodsIn a within-subject design, 83 children aged 8 to 11 years old were first asked to anticipate how much they would enjoy, how hungry they would feel after eating, and how healthy it would be to eat a recommended serving size, a 50% larger portion, and a 125% larger portion of brownie or applesauce. Over six subsequent sessions, the children were asked to eat all of each of these portions and then rate their post-intake enjoyment, residual hunger, and healthiness perceptions. We also measured hunger at the beginning of each session.ResultsFor both snacks, larger portions reduced anticipated and experienced residual hunger similarly. In contrast, larger portions increased anticipated but not experienced eating enjoyment for both snacks; although larger portions increased anticipated and experienced enjoyment ratings among extremely hungry children. All children under-anticipated how much they would enjoy the smaller portion sizes. Healthiness ratings were unaffected by portion size for both snacks but differed across foods (applesauce vs. brownie).ConclusionsChildren anticipate the effects of portion size on hunger change accurately, overestimate the effects of portion size on eating enjoyment, and rate food healthiness on food type and not portion size. Helping children better anticipate the enjoyment from smaller (recommended) portion sizes and understand that food quantity, not just quality, matters for healthy eating may be a solution to improve portion control.

Promoting Vegetable Intake in Preschool Children: Does Enhancing the Taste of Vegetables Influence the Portion Size Effect?

Abstract Objectives To meet dietary guidelines, effective strategies are needed to encourage children to eat a greater proportion of their diet from vegetables. We tested whether serving a larger portion, enhancing the taste with small amounts of butter and salt, or combining these strategies would increase vegetable intake at a meal for preschool children. Methods Using a crossover design in childcare centers, we served lunch once a week for four weeks to 67 children aged 3–5 y (61% girls; 16% with overweight or obesity). The meal consisted of two familiar vegetables (broccoli and corn) along with fish sticks, rice, ketchup, applesauce, and milk. Across the four meals, we varied the portion of vegetables (60 or 120 g total weight) and served them either plain or enhanced (0.5% salt and 6.6% light butter by weight). The other items in the meal were not varied. All meals were consumed ad libitum and weighed to determine intake. At the end of the study, children rated their liking for the foods and parents completed questionnaires about their child's eating behavior. Results Doubling the portions of vegetables led to greater consumption of both broccoli and corn (P &amp;lt; 0.0001) and increased total vegetable intake by 68% (mean ± SEM 21 ± 3 g). Enhancing vegetables with butter and salt, however, did not influence their intake (P = 0.13) nor modify the effect of larger portions on their intake (P = 0.10). Serving more vegetables did not affect intake of the other meal components (P = 0.57), thus meal energy intake increased by 13 ± 5 kcal (5%; P = 0.02). Ratings indicated that children had similar liking for the plain and enhanced versions of both broccoli (P = 0.31) and corn (P = 0.97). Although 73% of children rated one or both plain vegetables as yummy or just okay, they ranked their preference for the other foods in the meal higher than for the vegetables (P &amp;lt; 0.0001). Children differed in their response to larger portions of vegetables: those with higher scores for food fussiness and parental pressure to eat had smaller increases in vegetable intake when portions were doubled (both P &amp;lt; 0.03). Conclusions Serving larger portions of vegetables at a meal was an effective strategy to promote vegetable intake in children. When familiar, well-liked vegetables were served, adding butter and salt was not necessary to increase vegetable consumption. Funding Sources National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases.

Comparison of consumed portion sizes and serving sizes in UK energy dense snack foods

AbstractObesity is a major health problem facing the European population; over two thirds (67%) of UK adult men and 58% women are overweight or obese (1). The positive association between on-pack serving-size and food intake is known as the ‘portion size effect’. However, although direct links with obesity remain unproven, evidence suggests that limiting consumed portion size contributes to reduced energy intake and therefore reduced weight gain (2). UK portion size guidance is outdated and evidence suggests that on-pack serving-sizes have increased in some energy-dense foods (3). This study explores consumed portion sizes and on-pack serving-sizes in popular energy, fat and sugar-dense foods.The UK National Diet &amp; Nutrition Survey 2008–2014 (n = 2377) dataset was used to identify commonly consumed energy, fat and sugar-dense foods. Data was analysed for adults aged 19–64y (excluding under-reporters) for consumed portion sizes, and a commercial product database of major UK retailer and manufacturer data provided serving-sizes. Commonly consumed energy, fat and sugar-dense food groups were split into 45 product-based subgroups. Means of consumed portion size and on-pack serving-size were calculated and compared and nutrition per 100 g and per serve was explored.Just 57% products had serving-size details, whereas 97% had pack-size information; Chocolate had the least products with serving-size information (35%). Lack of on-pack serving-size guidance is therefore a widespread issue, particularly in some energy-dense snack foods. Serving-size ranges were wide and varied across food groups. Consumed portion sizes were significantly higher than on-pack serving-size in all main food groups and most subgroups. The greatest difference between consumed portion size and on-pack serving-size was Crisps (44%), and within this, ‘popcorn’ (151%). There is a real need for policies aimed at setting product pack and serving-sizes that help individuals consume smaller portions. However, further consideration is needed on how consumers understand on-pack serving-size messaging, front-of-pack labelling and pack size.Serving-size was unavailable for many products. However, where available, consumed portion sizes were higher than on-pack serving-size in all main food groups and most subgroups. These results could inform updated portion size guidance of energy-dense foods. Further work is needed to clarify whether smaller serving and pack sizes would lead to lower total consumption and energy/nutrient intake.

Effects of sample processing method and analytical portion size on variations in the analytical values of pesticide residues in vegetables and fruits

Effects of sample processing method and analytical portion size on variations in the analytical values of pesticide residues in vegetables and fruits