Portion Of Individuals Research Articles

A Mathematical Model of Universal Basic Income and Its Numerical Simulations

In this paper, an elementary mathematical model describing the introduction of a universal basic income in a closed market society is constructed. The model is formulated in terms of a system of nonlinear ordinary differential equations, each of which gives account of how the number of individuals in a certain income class changes in time. Societies ruled by different fiscal systems (with no taxes, with taxation and redistribution, with a welfare system) are considered and the effect of the presence of a basic income in the various cases is analysed by means of numerical simulations. The main findings are that basic income effectively acts as a tool of poverty alleviation: indeed, in its presence the portion of individuals in the poorest classes and economic inequality diminish. Of course, the issue of a universal basic income in the real world is more complex and involves a variety of aspects. The goal here is simply to show how mathematical models can help in forecasting scenarios resulting from one or the other policy.

Comparing and combining sliding semilandmarks and weighted spherical harmonics for shape analysis.

Quantifying morphological variation is critical for conducting anatomical research. Three-dimensional geometric morphometric (3D GM) landmark analyses quantify shape using homologous Cartesian coordinates (landmarks). Setting up a high-density landmark set and placing it on all specimens, however, can be a time-consuming task. Weighted spherical harmonics (SPHARM) provides an alternative method for analyzing the shape of such objects. Here we compare sliding semilandmark and SPHARM analyses of the calcaneus of Gorilla gorilla gorilla (n=20), Pan troglodytes troglodytes (n=20), and Homo sapiens (n=20) to determine whether the SPHARM and sliding semilandmark analyses capture comparable levels of shape variation. We also compare both the sliding semilandmark and SPHARM analyses to a novel combination of the two methods, here termed SPHARM-sliding. In SPHARM-sliding, the vertices of the surface models produced from the SPHARM analysis (that are the same in number and relative location) are used as the starting landmark positions for a sliding semilandmark analysis. Calcaneal shape variation quantified by all three analyses was summarized using separate principal components analyses. Results were compared using the root mean square (RMS) and maximum distance between surface models of species averages scaled (up) to centroid size created from each analysis. The average RMS was 0.23mm between sliding semilandmark and SPHARM average surface models, 0.19mm between SPHARM and SPHARM sliding average surface models, and 0.22mm between sliding semilandmark and SPHARM sliding average surface models. Although results indicate that all three analyses are comparable methods for 3D shape analysis, there are advantages and disadvantages to each. While the SPHARM analysis is less time-intensive, it is unable to capture the same level of detail around the sharp edges of articular facets on average surface models as the sliding semilandmark analysis. The SPHARM analysis also does not allow for individual articular facets to be analyzed in isolation. SPHARM-sliding, however, captures the same level of detail as the sliding semilandmark analysis, and (as in the sliding semilandmark analysis) allows for the evaluation of individual portions of bone. SPHARM is a comparable method to a 3D GM analysis for small, irregularly shaped bones, such as the calcaneus, and SPHARM-sliding allows for an expedited set up process for a sliding semilandmark analysis.

Combining Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation With Behavioral Interventions for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Reasons for Optimism Despite Negative Findings

Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a serious problem that impacts civilians and veterans worldwide. Despite significant strides in efficacious treatments, symptoms tend to persist in a large portion of individuals. This is sometimes due to the lack of completing often lengthy treatment protocols or because symptoms persist even after successful treatment completion. For first-line evidence-based psychotherapies (EBPs) for PTSD, such as cognitive processing therapy or prolonged exposure, studies have found that approximately one third of those seeking treatment drop out before completion, with higher rates in Veterans Healthcare Administration and Department of Defense settings (1).

Far-red light-activated human islet-like designer cells enable sustained fine-tuned secretion of insulin for glucose control

Diabetes affects almost half a billion people, and all individuals with type 1 diabetes (T1D) and a large portion of individuals with type 2 diabetes rely on self-administration of the peptide hormone insulin to achieve glucose control. However, this treatment modality has cumbersome storage and equipment requirements and is susceptible to fatal user error. Here, reasoning that a cell-based therapy could be coupled to an external induction circuit for blood glucose control, as a proof of concept we developed far-red light (FRL)-activated human islet-like designer (FAID) cells and demonstrated how FAID cell implants achieved safe and sustained glucose control in diabetic model mice. Specifically, by introducing a FRL-triggered optogenetic device into human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs), which we encapsulated in poly-(l-lysine)-alginate and implanted subcutaneously under the dorsum of T1D model mice, we achieved FRL illumination-inducible secretion of insulin that yielded improvements in glucose tolerance and sustained blood glucose control over traditional insulin glargine treatment. Moreover, the FAID cell implants attenuated both oxidative stress and development of multiple diabetes-related complications in kidneys. This optogenetics-controlled "living cell factory" platform could be harnessed to develop multiple synthetic designer therapeutic cells to achieve long-term yet precisely controllable drug delivery.

Subjective arousal and perceived control clarify heterogeneity in inflammatory and affective outcomes

Only a portion of individuals experiencing chronic stress and associated increases in inflammation go on to develop pathological elevations in mood and anxiety symptoms. Some prevailing models suggest that the outcomes of chronic stress may largely depend on individual differences in perceived control. In the current study, we used this theoretical framework to disambiguate the influence of autonomic arousal and perceived control on inflammatory and psychological outcomes in a large sample of adults from the Midlife in the United States dataset (wave 2; MIDUS-2) (Final N ​= ​1030), and further replicated our approach in a second (MIDUS-Refresher) cohort (Final N ​= ​728). Using k-means clustering we created subgroups systematically differing in subjective arousal (high/low) and perceived control (low/high) and compared these subgroups on inflammatory markers and psychological outcomes. Overall results showed that individuals in the high subjective arousal subgroups had higher levels of IL-6, CRP, and FIB, independent of level of CNTL. However, distinctive, and pathological psychological symptom patterns became more apparent when individuals were characterized by both subjective arousal and perceived control. These findings suggest that subtyping individuals based on subjective arousal and perceived control can help us disentangle pathological versus adaptive mental health outcomes in those with co-occurring inflammation and may help identify those vulnerable to psychopathology in the context of physical or psychological stressor exposure.

Numerical procedures for the analysis of collapse mechanisms of masonry structures using discrete element modelling

Earthquake damage in historic masonry buildings is generally caused by the collapse of individual portions that become detached form the structure and fail by overturning. These mechanisms are mainly governed by the discrete nature and geometry of the block units. Analyses based on explicit micro-modelling in which each block is considered separately are therefore of increasing importance. This paper offers a robust tool for the seismic assessment of masonry structures under either, quasi-static or dynamic loading. Algorithms for performing dynamic pulses and pushover analyses through the Discrete Element Method are developed and described, taking into account the actual discrete nature and geometry of masonry. A numerical procedure is proposed that automatically detects the collapse mode and follows the evolution of the analysis until collapse. The implemented method is able to give a reliable estimate of the expected failure mechanism, providing the seismic acceleration required to trigger the motion and the ultimate displacement beyond which the collapse occurs. Finally, the implemented algorithms are applied to two case studies and the results are compared with the traditional analysis based on rigid-block kinematics to outline the features and potentialities of the proposed approach.

Thermodynamic modeling of iron and zinc reduction from B<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> ‒ CaO ‒ Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> ‒ ZnО melt by СО ‒ CO<sub>2</sub> and H<sub>2</sub> ‒ Н<sub>2</sub>О mixtures

The paper presents the thermodynamic modeling results of zinc and iron reduction from B2O3 ‒ CaO ‒ Fe2O3 ‒ ZnО melts by CO ‒ CO2 and H2 ‒ H2O mixtures containing 0 – 60 % CO2 (H2O) at 1273 – 1673 K using a technique describing the reduction of metals from an oxide melt by gas in bubbling processes, under conditions that provide an approximation to real systems. Its originality is equilibrium determination for each individual portion of gas supplied into the working fluid. The reducible metals oxides content in each calculation cycle is taken from the previous data. During the calculations, changes in the content of zinc (СZnO ) and iron (СFe2O3 , СFe3O4 and СFeO ) oxides in the melt and the degree of their reduction were estimated. When using CO or H2 as a reducing agent, this process proceeds in three stages. In the first stage, Fe2O3 is reduced to Fe3O4 and FeO. CFe2O3 values decrease to almost zero, while CFe3O4 and CFeO increase simultaneously. By the end of the stage, СFe3O4 reaches its maximum value. At the second stage, the Fe3O4 → FeO transition occurs, when СFeO values reach its maximum. At these stages, there is a slight increase in the CZnO . At the third stage, the values CFeO and CZnO decrease, and iron and zinc are reduced. An increase in temperature dramatically reduces the gas consumption for zinc reduction by 2 – 3 times, and the replacement of CO with H2 reduces it by less than 20 %. In the presence of oxidizing agents (CO or H2O), only zinc is reduced. The process ends when the final content of zinc oxide in the melt corresponds to the equilibrium with the initial gas composition. The higher the temperature, the less CZnO is. The obtained data are useful for the development of technologies for the selective recovery of metals.

Impact of demographic survey questions on response rate and measurement: A randomized experiment

Demographic survey questions are important to describe the population of survey responders, illuminate potential disparities, and ultimately advance equity. Little is known about their impact on survey response rate or measurement. # Methods A total of 4,448 individuals were randomly assigned to one of three conditions in a mailed paper questionnaire where demographic questions were (1) not asked, (2) integrated at the end of the survey, or (3) included as standalone questions on a separate piece of paper. Response rates to the main survey and demographic questions, as well as item nonresponse and correlation of responses to administrative records, are compared. # Results Overall, 33.4% of individuals who were mailed the survey responded. There were no substantive or statistical differences in survey response rate when demographic questions were not asked (34.2%), were integrated into the survey (33.1%), or were standalone (33.0%; p = 0.762). Sampled individuals responded to the demographic questions at a significantly higher rate when they were integrated into the main survey (32.7%) compared to when they were standalone (28.3%). Respondents, when asked about income, declined to answer at a significantly higher rate when demographics were integrated (16.5%) compared to standalone (10.5%). Discordance between administrative and self-reported race and ethnicity data ranged from 0.6% to 1.0% and were not statistically different across arms (p = 0.64 and p = 0.88, respectively). # Discussion While these findings are limited to the context of the experiment, our results suggest that embedding demographic questions in a survey (as opposed to on a separate page) may result in more usable demographic data. Future work could explore the differential impact of post-survey missing data adjustments on estimates of demographic characteristics and correlation with other survey content. Overall, there was little measurement error in reporting of race/ethnicity in both conditions. # Conclusion For collection of demographic data from the largest portion of individuals via a mailed survey without negative impact on response rate or measurement error, demographic questions are best integrated into surveys rather than included as standalone items on a separate piece of paper.

Toward better characterization of restricted and repetitive behaviors in individuals with germline heterozygous PTEN mutations.

This study aimed to further our understanding of restricted and repetitive behaviors (RRB) among individuals with germline pathogenic mutations in PTEN by providing multimethod characterization and comparison of key RRB subdomains across individuals with PTEN mutations with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) (PTEN-ASD), with PTEN mutations without ASD (PTEN-No ASD) and with ASD and macrocephaly but without PTEN mutations (Macro-ASD). Of 86 total research participants, 38 had PTEN-ASD (Mage = 8.93 years, SDage = 4.75), 25 Macro-ASD (Mage = 11.99 years; SDage = 5.15), and 23 PTEN-No ASD (Mage = 8.94 years; SDage = 4.85). The Repetitive Behavior Scale-Revised (RBS-R) and the Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised (ADI-R) were used as measures of distinct RRB domains. There were significant group differences in the RBS-R repetitive motor behaviors (RMB; F= 4.52, p= 0.014, ω2 = 0.08), insistence on sameness (IS; F= 4.11, p= 0.02, ω2 = 0.05), and circumscribed interests (CI; F= 7.80, p= 0.001, ω2 = 0.14) scales. Post hoc comparisons showed that the PTEN-No ASD group had significantly lower RMB, IS, and CI scores compared to both PTEN-ASD and Macro-ASD groups. Importantly, PTEN-No ASD group still showed elevated RRB levels. Furthermore, there was a portion of individuals in PTEN-No ASD group whose Full-Scale Intelligence Quotient (FSIQ) was >70 that did not show floor level scores in the RMB domain. After adjusting for age and FSIQ scores, group differences were no longer statistically significant. RMB, IS, and CI domains showed distinct association patterns with sex, age, and FSIQ. This investigation provides the largest and most comprehensive characterization of distinct RRB domains in individuals with PTEN mutations to date. Despite the limitations, our findings have important assessment and treatment implications.

Dry and Wet Waste Segregation and Management System

Waste management faces numerous difficulties because of its enormous, quickly developing populace in a densely populated nation in the developing nations. The primary target of the research work is dry and wet waste separation and management process. A portion of the trash individuals produce is biodegradable, some are recyclable, and some are not one or the other. Waste segregation includes isolating wastes as per how it's dealt with or handled. Isolation of waste through at unloading locales burns-through additional time and labor. This work suggests a Spontaneous Waste Segregator (SWS) which is a modest, simple to utilize answer for an isolation framework at family units. The AWS utilizes a dampness sensor to distinguish wet and dry waste and separate them with ultrasound sensors for ceaseless checking and GSM based waste level notice to authority. This system can be used in industries for the employees to use daily. It will be used for wet food junks or even as a normal daily bin. The automatic wet and dry waste and separating system has been developed using microcontroller. As the integrated circuits and microcontroller become more and more accessible and the technology is a fact of today with the improved availability of sensor devices.

Dry and Wet Waste Segregation and Management System

Waste management faces numerous difficulties because of its enormous, quickly developing populace in a densely populated nation in the developing nations. The primary target of the research work is dry and wet waste separation and management process. A portion of the trash individuals produce is biodegradable, some are recyclable, and some are not one or the other. Waste segregation includes isolating wastes as per how it's dealt with or handled. Isolation of waste through at unloading locales burns-through additional time and labor. This work suggests a Spontaneous Waste Segregator (SWS) which is a modest, simple to utilize answer for an isolation framework at family units. The AWS utilizes a dampness sensor to distinguish wet and dry waste and separate them with ultrasound sensors for ceaseless checking and GSM based waste level notice to authority. This system can be used in industries for the employees to use daily. It will be used for wet food junks or even as a normal daily bin. The automatic wet and dry waste and separating system has been developed using microcontroller. As the integrated circuits and microcontroller become more and more accessible and the technology is a fact of today with the improved availability of sensor devices.

Two-Stage Testing Reduces Student-Perceived Exam Anxiety in Introductory Chemistry

Two-stage quizzes and exams were implemented for both in-class quizzes and term tests in three sections of first-year General (Introductory) Chemistry. In the first stage, students completed the exam individually and submitted their papers. In the second stage, students collaborated with peers to complete a subset of the exam questions. The aim of the first stage was to evaluate students’ individual knowledge, while the second stage provided an opportunity for peer-led learning. Exam scores were calculated as a blend of scores on the two stages, between 80 and 85% for the first (individual) stage and 20–15% for the second (collaborative) stage. Students’ (total n = 129) written responses to open-ended questions in a long-answer student survey comparing two-stage and one-stage (in which there is only the individual portion) tests were qualitatively coded by thematic analysis, with themes developed through a grounded theory approach. The most significant conclusion was that students perceived that the two-stage test format helped to partially (but by no means fully) alleviate student exam anxiety when compared to a traditional one-stage test. Student responses were primarily positive about the two-stage format rather than negative about the one-stage format. The most common themes that emerged from student responses centered on: (1) improvement in grades, (2) positive discussion with peers, (3) immediate feedback from peers, and (4) less (perceived) pressure. Finally, students also expressed a very strong overall preference for two-stage over one-stage tests.

COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy in a sample of Greek adults

ABSTRACT The ongoing COVID-19 global medical crisis carries a plethora of consequences and various sequelae, of which the most striking is the impact on physical and mental health. After the relaxing of imposed measures in Greece, in May 2020, a cross-sectional web survey based on a convenience sample was conducted exploring the attributions about the COVID-19 pandemic. Respondents were asked to rank their hesitancy to be vaccinated when the COVID-19 vaccine will be available and provided data on gender, age, educational level, professional status, marital status and residential area, as well as a questionnaire exploring COVID-19 attributions. In accordance with relevant studies, the present study confirmed that there is a sizable portion of vaccine-hesitant individuals. Female and less educated participants were more hesitant to get vaccinated. Similar reluctance was identified in participants who strongly believed that the spread of the pandemic is part of a hidden agenda.

Состояние ценопопуляций и изменчивость редкого вида Dactylorhiza viridis (L.) R. M. Bateman, Pridgeon & M. W. Chase (Orchidaceae) в условиях антропогенной нагрузки на луговые экосистемы Центрального Кавказа

We studied the variation of morphological characters, ontogenetic structure and vitality of seven cenopopulations of Dactylorhiza viridis (L.) R. M. Bateman, Pridgeon & M. W. Chase within the Kabardino-Balkar Republic in 2015–2019. The studies were conducted in the meadow plant communities under different conditions of anthropogenic load (recreation and grazing). The species presents medium phytocenotic plasticity of morphological characters (I p=36–70%) and high variation of morphological characters (CVх–ср=18,55–45,22%) under changeable conditions of growth. The intensification of growth processes in the individuals with the maximum increase of the cenopopulation vitality (IVC = 1,12–1,18) is observed in the composition of undisturbed meadows. The portion of generative individuals is 44,8–52,6% in ontogenetic spectra, and the stable seed reproduction of cenopopulations is registered. Under the intensification of the anthropogenic load, the vitality of cenopopulations (IVC = 0,80–1,04) and the density of individuals (0,47–3,20 ind./m2) are decreased; the portion of generative individuals is increased in ontogenetic spectra (65,4–81,6%). The rate of the seed reproduction of cenopopulations, in which the density of individuals accounts for 28,47 ind./m2, is high on the rubbly substrata with low total projective cover.

GPS based Handheld System for Land Area Measurement

Most often there arises a situation of not being able to measure huge areas of land using the conventional methods like measuring tape because of different reasons like the land being uneven or presence of trees, bushes or buildings in the path. To overcome this problem, we can use the GPS module for measuring land and calculating the area. The borders of the land which we want to measure can be marked by finding the location coordinates with the help of GPS module. The land is divided into triangular portions and area of individual portion is calculated and then all the areas are added to get the total land area. By using this method, distance between two points and area of a given field can be calculated with ease. This would require less man power when compared to the conventional methods and the task of land measurement will be simplified

Modeling the dynamic of COVID-19 with different types of transmissions.

In this paper, we propose a new epidemiological mathematical model for the spread of the COVID-19 disease with a special focus on the transmissibility of individuals with severe symptoms, mild symptoms, and asymptomatic symptoms. We compute the basic reproduction number and we study the local stability of the disease-free equilibrium in terms of the basic reproduction number. Numerical simulations were employed to illustrate our results. Furthermore, we study the present model in case we took into consideration the vaccination of a portion of susceptible individuals to predict the impact of the vaccination program.

Cervical spinal cord injury-induced neuropathic pain in male mice is associated with a persistent pro-inflammatory macrophage/microglial response in the superficial dorsal horn

A significant portion of individuals living with traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI) experiences some degree of debilitating neuropathic pain (NP). This pain remains largely intractable in a majority of cases, due in part to an incomplete understanding of its underlying mechanisms. Central sensitization, an increase in excitability of pain transmission neurons located in superficial dorsal horn (sDH), plays a key role in development and maintenance of SCI-induced NP. Resident microglia and peripheral monocyte-derived macrophages (referred to collectively as MMΦ) are involved in promoting SCI-induced DH neuron hyperexcitability. Importantly, these MMΦ consist of populations of cells that can exert pro-inflammatory or anti-inflammatory signaling within injured spinal cord. It is critical to spatiotemporally characterize this heterogeneity to understand MMΦ contribution to NP after SCI. Given that a majority of SCI cases are cervical in nature, we used a model of unilateral C5/C6 contusion that results in persistent at-level thermal hyperalgesia and mechanical allodynia, two forms of NP-related behavior, in the forepaw. The aim of this study was to characterize the sDH MMΦ response within intact cervical spinal cord segments caudal to the lesion (i.e. the location of primary afferent nociceptive input from the forepaw plantar surface). Cervical SCI promoted a persistent MMΦ response in sDH that coincided with the chronic NP phenotype. Using markers of pro- and anti-inflammatory MMΦ, we found that the MMΦ population within sDH exhibited significant heterogeneity that evolved over time post-injury, including a robust and persistent increase in pro-inflammatory MMΦ that was especially pronounced at later times. C5/C6 contusion SCI also induced below-level thermal hyperalgesia and mechanical allodynia in the hindpaw; however, we did not observe a pronounced MMΦ response in sDH of L4/L5 spinal cord, suggesting that different inflammatory cell mechanisms occurring in sDH may be involved in at-level versus below-level NP following SCI. In conclusion, our findings reveal significant MMΦ heterogeneity both within and across pain transmission locations after SCI. These data also show a prominent and persistent pro-inflammatory MMΦ response, suggesting a possible role in DH neuron hyperexcitability and NP.

Catch Me if You Can: Superspreading of COVID-19.

While significant insights have been gained concerning COVID-19, superspreading of coronaviruses remains a mystery. The vast majority of cases have been linked to a relatively small portion of infected individuals. Yet, the genetic sequence of the virus, severity of disease, and underlying host parameters, such as age, sex, and health conditions, are not clearly driving the superspreading phenomenon. In this commentary we discuss what is known and what is not known about coronavirus superspreader transmission and explore whether characteristics of the virion, the donor, or the environment contribute to this phenomenon.

Accuracy of common stem volume formulae using terrestrial photogrammetric point clouds: a case study with savanna trees in Benin

Recent applications of digital photogrammetry in forestry have highlighted its utility as a viable mensuration technique. However, in tropical regions little research has been done on the accuracy of this approach for stem volume calculation. In this study, the performance of Structure from Motion photogrammetry for estimating individual tree stem volume in relation to traditional approaches was evaluated. We selected 30 trees from five savanna species growing at the periphery of the W National Park in northern Benin and measured their circumferences at different heights using traditional tape and clinometer. Stem volumes of sample trees were estimated from the measured circumferences using nine volumetric formulae for solids of revolution, including cylinder, cone, paraboloid, neiloid and their respective fustrums. Each tree was photographed and stem volume determined using a taper function derived from tri-dimensional stem models. This reference volume was compared with the results of formulaic estimations. Tree stem profiles were further decomposed into different portions, approximately corresponding to the stump, butt logs and logs, and the suitability of each solid of revolution was assessed for simulating the resulting shapes. Stem volumes calculated using the fustrums of paraboloid and neiloid formulae were the closest to reference volumes with a bias and root mean square error of 8.0% and 24.4%, respectively. Stems closely resembled fustrums of a paraboloid and a neiloid. Individual stem portions assumed different solids as follows: fustrums of paraboloid and neiloid were more prevalent from the stump to breast height, while a paraboloid closely matched stem shapes beyond this point. Therefore, a more accurate stem volumetric estimate was attained when stems were considered as a composite of at least three geometric solids.

Evolutionary Rao algorithm

This paper proposes an evolutionary Rao algorithm (ERA) to enhance three state-of-the-art metaheuristic Rao algorithms (Rao-1, Rao-2, Rao-3) by introducing two new schemes. Firstly, the population is split into two sub-populations based on their qualities: high and low, with a particular portion. The high-quality sub-population searches for an optimum solution in an exploitative manner using a movement scheme used in the Rao-3 algorithm. Meanwhile, the low-quality one does in an explorative fashion using a new random walk. Secondly, two evolutionary operators: crossover and mutation, are incorporated to provide both exploitation and exploration strategies. A fitness-based adaptation is introduced to dynamically tune the three parameters: the portion of high-quality individuals, mutation radius, and mutation rate throughout the evolution, based on the improvement of best-so-far fitness. In contrast, the crossover is implemented using a standard random scheme. Comprehensive examinations using 38 benchmarks: twenty-three classic functions, ten CEC-C06 2019 benchmarks, and five global trajectory optimization problems show that the proposed ERA generally outperforms the four competitors: Rao-1, Rao-2, Rao-3, and firefly algorithm with courtship learning (FA-CL). Detailed investigations indicate that both proposed schemes work very well to make ERA evolves in an exploitative manner, which is created by a high portion of high-quality individuals and the crossover operator, and avoids being trapped on the local optimum solutions in an explorative manner, which is generated by a high portion of low-quality individuals and the mutation operator. Finally, the adaptation scheme effectively controls the exploitation-exploration balance by dynamically tuning the portion, mutation radius, and mutation rate throughout the evolution process.