Porteus Maze Research Articles

Executive function as a function of sub-clinical psychopathy

Some aspects of executive function are thought to be dysfunctional in psychopathic individuals. We administered a small battery of neuropsychological tests (spatial alternation task, object alternation task, and Porteus Maze) to two samples of college students and obtained a measure of psychopathy via a self-report questionnaire. Psychopathic traits were related to the tests of object alternation and Porteus Maze but not to the spatial alternation task. Our results support the hypothesis of orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) dysfunction with sparing of dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) in psychopathy and provide a downward extension of this theory to sub-clinical levels of psychopathy.

Behavioural indices of qualitative change in children's spatial and computation reasoning strategies

Event Abstract Back to Event Behavioural indices of qualitative change in children's spatial and computation reasoning strategies Jacob Paul1* and Robert Reeve1 1 University of Melbourne, Australia Background It is claimed that the intraparietal sulcus (IPS), as part of a frontal-parietal network, is activated in numerical computation, spatial reasoning and executive function processing. IPS network activation suggests that system-dependent indices are likely to be correlated. If this is correct, we would expect computation ability, spatial representation and executive function abilities to be related; and, if, as some claim, the IPS is partially independent of other neural systems, we would not expect IPS-related behavioural indices to be related to general behavioural indices. In the present research we test these claims. We are also interested in the associated overlap in the sophistication of spatial and computation reasoning strategies. While changes in IPS activation with maturity and problem solving ability are well documented, these changes have little to say about qualitative changes in cognitive functions (e.g., cognitive strategies). Measures We assessed 144 5-9 year-olds mental addition abilities/strategies, spatial reasoning (via the Porteus Maze task), visuo-spatial working memory (WM), non-verbal IQ and basic RT (the latter two measures are indices of general cognitive functioning). Of particular interest were changes in spatial reasoning and mental addition problem solving strategy sophistication. Results Using latent class cluster analyses, we identified four computation strategy profiles and four spatial reasoning profiles. Multinomial logistic regression confirmed that membership of a specific spatial reasoning profile and the capacity of visuo-spatial-WM predicted differences in the computation strategy profiles; and in contrast, general measures of cognitive maturity (IQ and RT) did not contribute to this prediction. Discussion The findings provide compelling evidence of a link between computation and spatial reasoning strategy sophistication, predicted by claims of behavioural indices associated with activation of IPS. The patterns of findings suggest we need more neurobiological information about sensitive periods in parietal function changes. Until neuroimaging techniques can reveal information about qualitative changes in cognitive reasoning strategies, behavioural indices will remain important. Keywords: cognitive strategy, mental addition, spatial reasoning, executive functions, latent class mixture modeling Conference: ACNS-2013 Australasian Cognitive Neuroscience Society Conference, Clayton, Melbourne, Australia, 28 Nov - 1 Dec, 2013. Presentation Type: Poster Topic: Executive Processes Citation: Paul J and Reeve R (2013). Behavioural indices of qualitative change in children's spatial and computation reasoning strategies. Conference Abstract: ACNS-2013 Australasian Cognitive Neuroscience Society Conference. doi: 10.3389/conf.fnhum.2013.212.00020 Copyright: The abstracts in this collection have not been subject to any Frontiers peer review or checks, and are not endorsed by Frontiers. They are made available through the Frontiers publishing platform as a service to conference organizers and presenters. The copyright in the individual abstracts is owned by the author of each abstract or his/her employer unless otherwise stated. Each abstract, as well as the collection of abstracts, are published under a Creative Commons CC-BY 4.0 (attribution) licence (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) and may thus be reproduced, translated, adapted and be the subject of derivative works provided the authors and Frontiers are attributed. For Frontiers’ terms and conditions please see https://www.frontiersin.org/legal/terms-and-conditions. Received: 15 Oct 2013; Published Online: 25 Nov 2013. * Correspondence: Mr. Jacob Paul, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia, jacobpaul88@gmail.com Login Required This action requires you to be registered with Frontiers and logged in. To register or login click here. Abstract Info Abstract The Authors in Frontiers Jacob Paul Robert Reeve Google Jacob Paul Robert Reeve Google Scholar Jacob Paul Robert Reeve PubMed Jacob Paul Robert Reeve Related Article in Frontiers Google Scholar PubMed Abstract Close Back to top Javascript is disabled. Please enable Javascript in your browser settings in order to see all the content on this page.

346 – Psychosocial profile and academic achievement in a selective sample of preparatory school students

Introduction School and academic performance are considered highly complex outcome. The pupil's intellectual capacities intervene, and other types of influencing factors can hinder or boost school performance. Aim of the work: To assess psychosocial variables including self-esteem, depression, anxiety symptoms and academic achievement in a selective sample of preparatory school students. Participants This is a school based cross sectional study. The sample consisted of all students in the preparatory stage in a private school of both sexes, age ranged from 12–15 years. The sample was divided according to the academic performance of the student based on the overall grade of each student at the end of the school year into: Insufficient 80%. Method All students were given a questionnaire to assess personal data, family background, past history of medical or psychiatric condition, scholastic achievement and psychometric tools: including Porteus maze, Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory, Children Depression Inventory (CDI) and, the Children's Manifest Anxiety Scale. Results The higher the grades of students, the higher the level of anxiety and this was statistically significant. Girls had higher levels of anxiety than boys and this reached a statistically significant difference. There was significant correlation between depression and academic achievement of students. Self-esteem was significantly correlated with academic achievement. Conclusion Depression has a significant role in academic performance of adolescents. Self-esteem of adolescents is highly related to their academic achievement.

Cognitive Reserve, Age, and Their Relation to Attentional and Executive Functions

The main objective of this research was to establish the relation between age, cognitive reserve (CR), and attentional and executive functions. One hundred and sixty healthy participants aged 20 to 65 years old completed a wide battery of frontal-lobe tasks using classical tests that assess planning and control of movement, problem solving, and inhibition of automatic response, visuomotor tracking, focused and sustained attention, shifting, spontaneity and reasoning. The total sum of the score in premorbid IQ (by means of the Weschsler Adult Intelligence Scale Vocabulary subtest), educational level, and type of profession was used as a proxy of CR. Subjects were divided into groups of low or high CR. Multiple linear and logistic analyses revealed that age is a predictor of the 20Q Test, Terman Merril's Picture task, Similarities, Digit Span (backward), Trail-Making Tests, Porteus Maze Trace, the “A” Letter Cancellation Test, and reciprocal inhibition. CR is a predictor of the Controlled Oral Word Association Test, Trail-Making Tests A and B, Digit Span (forward), and Similarities. In conclusion, a higher CR score is associated with better performance in almost all tests employed. But it has a significant contribution to performance on verbal fluency, behavioral spontaneity, reasoning, divided and complex attention, and working memory functions, which are mainly related to the dorsolateral prefrontal area.

Investigating the Relationship between Sexual and Chemical Addictions by Comparing Executive Function in Subjects With Pedophilia or Opiate Addiction and Healthy Controls

Disorders of driven sexual behavior have been conceptualized as sexual addictions. In the following study, we compared 51 subjects with pedophilia, 53 subjects with opiate addiction, and 84 healthy control subjects on neuropsychological tests that tap executive functions. The test battery included the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST), Stroop Color-Word Test, the Matching Familiar Figures Test (MFFT), Porteus Mazes, Controlled Word Association (COWA), and Trailmaking Test. The groups differed on tests of cognitive flexibility and set switching (WCST), sustained attention (Stroop), and impulsivity (MFFT and Porteus Mazes). There were no differences on verbal fluency (COWA). The subjects with pedophilia differed significantly from those with opiate addiction on several tests, with longer latency to response on MFFT and fewer completed mazes but also fewer errors on Porteus Mazes. Thus, while both subjects with pedophilia and those with opiate addiction show executive dysfunction, the nature of that dysfunction may differ between the two groups; specifically, opiate addicted subjects may be more prone to cognitive impulsivity.

Neuropsychological tests and driving in dementia: a review of the recent literature

Neuropsychological tests measure several aspects of cognition and are useful to evaluate elderly drivers with cognitive impairment. However, there is no consensus on a standard battery of tests that could accurately predict safe driving. The aim of this study is to review specific neuropsychological measures that may be useful to predict driving competence of demented individuals. To address neuropsychological tests used for dementia and the ability to drive, the authors searched for the keywords dementia, Alzheimer's, drive, driver, drivers, driving, tests, neuropsychological, and assessment, in Medline, PubMed, ISI and SciELO databases seeking articles from 2000 to 2008. From 131 articles, 27 met the inclusion criteria. Porteus Maze, Clock drawing, Trail B, UFOV and NAB Tests were found to be the most relevant neuropsychological measures for the evaluation of fitness to drive. Porteus Maze, Clock Drawing, Trail B, UFOV and NAB tests highlight visuospatial attention demands and/ or executive function. Those and other visuospatial and executive measures may be useful to predict driving competence of demented individuals.

Brief Report: Interaction between social class and risky decision-making in children with psychopathic tendencies

Objective Adult psychopaths are thought to have risky decision-making and behavioral disinhibition, but little is known about the moderating effects of psychosocial factors and whether these associations can be observed in children with psychopathic tendencies. This study tests the biosocial hypothesis that social class will moderate psychopathy–neurocognition relationships, with these effects being stronger in children from high social classes. Method Preadolescent community twins ( N = 298) were assessed on decision-making (Iowa Gambling) and behavior inhibition (Porteus Maze) tasks, while psychopathic tendencies and socioeconomic status were assessed by the child's caregiver. Results A significant interaction was observed whereby risky decision-making was associated with psychopathic tendencies only in children from benign home environments. Conclusions Findings support a biosocial interaction perspective on child psychopathy, suggesting that risky decision-making may particularly predispose to psychopathic traits in children from benign home backgrounds.

Executive Functioning in Older Adults with Mild Cognitive Impairment: MCI Has Effects on Planning, But Not on Inhibition

ABSTRACT In this study, we compared executive functioning in 32 mild cognitive impairment (MCI) individuals with that of normally aging controls. Cognitive planning tests (Trail Making, Porteus Maze Test, verbal fluency tests) show a group difference favoring the normal controls, but tests for inhibition of prepotent responses (no-go accuracy, two measures of the Stroop effect, and negative priming) failed to uncover a significant group difference. The results indicate that there is no general executive control function impairment in MCI; rather, the deficits found are compatible with the hypothesis that MCI is an accelerated form of normal aging.

Moral Reasoning, Executive Function, and Personality in Violent and Nonviolent Adult Offenders

To evaluate moral reasoning and personality, inmates from a maximum security jail were administered the Porteus Maze, the Defining Issues Test, the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-168, and the Test of Nonverbal Intelligence. Scores of 20 violent and 19 nonviolent offenders were compared. The control group consisted of 20 university students who indicated they did not have criminal ords. All were over the age of 18. Analysis showed the violent offenders had mature moral reasoning and were more elevated on the Antiestablishment scale of the Defining Issues Test. Furthermore, inmates displayed significantly elevated scores on depression, Psychopathic Deviance, and Social Introversion relative to the control group.

The construct of impulsivity revisited

We examine the construct of impulsivity using an organismic-developmental approach. Trait impulsivity was assessed by means of both the Impulsiveness Questionnaire (I 7 or I 5) and the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale (BIS-11 or BIS-11-A). Cognitive impulsivity was assessed by means of a computerized Matching Familiar Figures Test, the Porteus Maze Test, the Trail Making Test, a computerized Wisconsin Card Sorting Task, and Circle Tracing. Our data were collected from a total of 182 individuals, ranging in age between 14 and 22 years, divided into two groups. Participants were tested individually, and completed the tests in one session lasting approximately 1.5 h. We were able to substantiate our prediction that the multi-faceted construct of impulsivity becomes more differentiated with age: factor analysis revealed two impulsivity factors in the younger age group (primarily ages 14 and 16), and three impulsivity factors in the older group (primarily ages 20 and 22).

Brain Activation during Mental Maze Solving

Background: So-called Porteus mazes are used to investigate prefrontal cortex (PFC) functioning in normal subjects and patients with different neuropsychiatric disorders. Here we present data confirming the involvement of the PFC for the first time by means of functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). To minimize motor-related activation, mental mazes were used. Methods: Mazes as well as pseudo-mazes without any bifurcations were presented to 49 healthy participants during fMRI scans. Results: Both, mazes as well as pseudo-mazes, activated a large network from visual to parietal regions, reflecting the dorsal stream of visual information processing. Mazes but not pseudo-mazes also activated bilateral areas of the PFC indicating their special role in decision processes. In addition, although no motor response was required during maze performance, both tasks activated subcortical and cortical motor areas. Conclusions: These tasks are suitable for investigating and specifying PFC functioning and its impairment in psychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia. In addition, mental mazes might be a suitable task for the investigation of patients with motor disturbances.

Cognitive deficits associated with restless legs syndrome (RLS)

Background and purpose Restless legs syndrome produces significant chronic sleep loss, which despite not causing expected profound sleepiness, might nonetheless produce cognitive deficits similar to those seen with acute sleep deprivation, i.e. involving mostly pre-frontal cortical (PFC) functioning. Patients and methods Sixteen patients off RLS treatment for at least 2 weeks and 15 age- and gender-matched control subjects had polysomnograms (PSGs) on two consecutive nights. Cognitive tests were given in the morning after the second night. Six cognitive tests were used: two Verbal Fluency tests and the Trail Making tests were selected to be particularly sensitive to PFC function and sleep loss. Porteus Mazes and the Stroop Test were selected to reflect more general frontal and executive function. The Colored Progressive Matrices were used to assess general cognitive skills. Results RLS patients compared to controls showed significant ( P<0.05) and sizeable (20–40%) deficits on two of the three PFC tests and marginally non-significant deficit ( P<0.1) on the third. The other three tests showed no significant differences. Conclusions The results indicate that RLS patients show cognitive deficits similar to that reported for one night of sleep loss.

Differential effect of right and left basal ganglionic infarctions on procedural learning.

To assess the effect of ischemic infarctions affecting the basal ganglia (BG) region on a series of procedural learning tasks. The basal ganglia hypothesis of procedural learning is a matter of debate. As most of the relevant research so far is based on examination of patients suffering from Parkinson disease, this inconsistency might reflect either lesion heterogeneity existing in this pathologic group or the heterogeneity of the procedural learning tasks. Twelve patients with lesions confined to the right (BGr), 10 to the left (BGI) BG region, and 15 matched controls participated in the study. Three procedural learning tasks were used: Tower of Hanoi Puzzle, Mirror Reading, and Porteus Mazes. Declarative memory and general intelligence were also tested. Verbal declarative memory was impaired in the BG1 group. For each procedural learning task, baseline performance and learning rate were analyzed. Tower of Hanoi Puzzle: Baseline performance of the BG1 group was impaired compared with the other groups. The BGr group was the only group that did not improve over learning trials. MR: Baseline performance of the BGr group was impaired compared with the other groups. The groups' learning rate did not differ significantly. Porteus Mazes: Baseline performance of both patient groups was impaired compared with that of the control group. Learning rate over repetitive trials of the same maze was impaired in the BGr group. However, the transfer of procedural learning to a newly exposed maze was impaired in the BG1 group. First, right and left basal ganglia play different roles in different procedural learning tasks. Second, procedural learning is not a unitary capacity subserved by any single neural mechanism.

Performance of Girls With ADHD and Comparison Girls On the Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure: Evidence for Executive Processing Deficits

In spite of a multitude of scoring approaches, the ability of the Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure (ROCF) to measure executive functions versus grapho-motor skill is still open to question. To clarify this issue, we examined the performance of an ethnically and socioeconomically diverse sample of preadolescent girls (ADHD-Combined, n = 93; ADHD-Inattentive, n = 47; and comparison girls, n = 88) on the ROCF, scoring both immediate copy and delayed recall performance. Girls with ADHD performed the task following a stimulant medication washout. Dependent measures were the established Developmental Scoring System variables of Organization, Accuracy, and Style, plus an operationalized and extensively detailed scoring of errors, featuring an error proportion score (EPS). The major finding is that only EPS differentiated girls with ADHD from comparison girls (a) on both immediate and delayed performance and (b) with stringent statistical control of Performance IQ, fine motor speed, and performance on the Porteus Mazes (as well as comorbidities), with effect sizes in the medium range. Perseverative errors contributed significantly to EPS. Overall, error scores on the ROCF appear to tap planning, a key executive function, and are quite sensitive to deficits in this domain for girls with ADHD.

Selective attention and executive functions deficits among criminal psychopaths

AbstractThe present study examined whether psychopaths exhibit deficits in selective attention and executive functions. Prison inmates were assigned to either a “psychopath” group or a “control” group according to their scores on the PCL‐R [Hare, 1991: Toronto, Multi‐Health Systems]. The two groups were compared in terms of performance on the following tests: (1) D‐II cancellation, (2) Porteus Maze, (3) Modified Wisconsin Card Sorting, (4) Stroop Color Word Interference, (5) Trail Making, and (6) Tower of London. The results support the hypothesis of selective attention and specific executive function deficits among psychopaths. Specifically, psychopaths' abilities to maintain a plan and to inhibit irrelevant information were inferior to those of control participants. Aggr. Behav. 29:393–405, 2003. © 2003 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.

Maze test performance and reported driving ability in early dementia.

A battery of standard neuropsychological tests examining various features of executive function, attention, and visual perception was administered to 27 subjects with questionable to mild dementia and compared to a 4-point caregiver rating scale of driving ability. Based on the results of this study, a computerized maze task, employing 10 mazes, was administered to a second sample of 40 normal elders and questionable to moderately demented drivers. Comparison was made to the same caregiver rating scale as well as to crash frequency. In the first study of neuropsychological tests, errors on Porteus Mazes emerged as the only significant predictor of driving ability in a stepwise regression analysis. In the follow-up study employing the computerized mazes, all 10 mazes were significantly related to driving ability ratings. Computerized tests of maze performance offer promise as a screening tool to identify potential driving impairment among cognitively impaired elderly and demented drivers.

Executive–cognitive functioning in the development of antisocial personality disorder

The present study examined the association of cognitive–executive abilities to two risk factors for alcoholism, i.e., antisocial behaviors and a family history (FH+) of alcohol dependence. A sample of 91 right-handed, non-substance-dependent, young male adults recruited from the community were classified into three groups: (1) a control group of n=32 men with no history of DSM-III-R childhood conduct disorder (CD) or antisocial personality disorder (ASPD); (2) n=25 men who met criteria for a DSM-III-R childhood CD diagnosis, but did not meet diagnostic criteria for ASPD (i.e., CD/ASPD−); and (3) n=34 men who met DSM-III-R criteria for ASPD. They were further divided into those with and without a positive family history of alcoholism. A two-way (Antisocial Profile (3)×Family History of Alcoholism (2)) ANOVA was used to compare several neuropsychological measures of executive–cognitive functioning (ECF) ability. Verbal abstraction ability was found to be significantly lower in ASPD subjects compared with controls and CD-only subjects, inversely related to antisocial behavior severity (as measured by symptom count). CD-only and control subjects' abstraction ability were statistically indistinguishable. FH+ was associated with increased errors in planning performance on the Porteus Maze Test and diminished performance on Luria's simple alternate-tapping motor tasks. The effect was more pronounced when inhibition of prepotent motor planning was required. Results are consistent with previous work examining ECF ability in antisocial samples that find subtle differences in ECF ability compared to controls. The findings suggest that normal versus abnormal behavioral outcome for children with conduct problems may be influenced by cognitive ability profile, perhaps because of varying maturational processes.

‘Torre de Londres’: planificación mental, validez y efecto techo

The Tower of London (TL) is a neuropsychological test that is used to evaluate the capacity for planning. Different versions of the TL exist, including the classical version that presents certain psychometric problems (for example, the ceiling effect). The aim of this study was to propose a new method of administering and correcting the classical version of the TL, thus increasing the mental resolution of the planning task through instruction, and varying the system of scoring in order to obtain a wider range of scores. Two versions of the TL were administered to two independent, counterbalanced groups. One of them was the one designed by Krikorian and the other was the one proposed for this study. To compare the two versions, Porteus mazes were administered in each group as a criterion variable in the study of correlations. Both versions correlate with the Porteus mazes in a similar fashion. The variances found in each group are statistically different and the coefficient of covariance is clearly wider in the group that received the version proposed in this study. Changing the instruction for the mental resolution of planning tasks does not appear to alter the TL. The changes introduced in the correction and the system of scoring of the version proposed for this study present wider variance, which means that the ceiling effect has been overcome.

Altered functional MRI responses in Huntington??s disease

This study examined the effects of Huntington's disease (HD) on neural activity during performance of the Porteus maze task. fMRI data were acquired from three HD patients and three controls. Reduced fMRI signal was observed in the patients relative to the controls in occipital, parietal and somato-motor cortex and in the caudate, while increased signal was found in HD in the left postcentral and right middle frontal gyri. The altered fMRI responses in HD patients may result from neural, metabolic, neurovascular coupling and/or hemodynamic differences associated with this disorder.

Executive function ability in persons with aphasia

Background: There is an increasing recognition that the communication problems one observes in persons with aphasia extend beyond verbal deficits and that the myriad of symptoms observed are not solely due to a faulty linguistic system. Rather, there exists a coalition of causal elements resulting in a wide range of communicative deficits. There is some preliminary evidence suggesting that communicative success of clients with aphasia may depend on the integrity of executive function skills. Executive functions are called into play when an individual is involved in a complex, novel activity. They allow us to plan, sequence, organise, and monitor goal-directed activities in a flexible manner as demanded by situational and environmental changes. When linguistic skills are impaired, individuals need to rely on other cognitive skills in order to communicate. Aims: The purpose of this study was to explore executive functioning ability in persons with aphasia. Methods & Procedures: A total of 15 individuals with aphasia and 12 healthy control subjects participated in this study. Three dimensions of performance were examined (accuracy, speed, and efficiency) in the context of neuropsychological tests designed to examine cognitive flexibility and goal-directed planning (Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, Porteus Maze Test, Tower of London, and Tower of Hanoi). Outcomes & Results: Results indicated that the two groups performed with similar levels of accuracy on two of the four tests. However, significant differences were found on all speed and efficiency variables, suggesting decreased executive functioning skills in the group of individuals with aphasia. Conclusions: It is important to consider executive functioning ability in clients with aphasia and attempt to determine the influence of executive function skill on communicative performance. Understanding the cognitive abilities as well as the linguistic abilities of these clients may ultimately help clinicians determine which patients are better candidates for intervention as well as which treatment approaches would be most efficient and beneficial.