Port Kembla Research Articles

Recipient Environment More Important than Community Composition in Determining the Success of an Experimental Sponge Transplant

Abstract Human activities have inflicted profound damage upon many ecosystems, and ecologists are now seeking effective means of restoring ecosystems to their natural state. Industrial ports and harbors are highly modified and often depauperate in native fauna. They are typically characterized by poor water quality and modified community composition, both of which may hinder attempts to reintroduce native species. Here, we conducted a field experiment to separate the effects of the recipient environment and community composition on the success of endemic sponge explants in Port Kembla Harbor, NSW, Australia. A reciprocal transplant was conducted between communities originating from six sites that varied in water quality and community composition, enabling us to assess the relative factors simultaneously. A colony of the endemic sponge Tedania anhelans was then inserted into the center of each community, and we quantified the survival, growth, and metal bioaccumulation of sponges over three months. Endemic sponges consistently performed better against resident assemblages when water quality was good. Sponges transplanted to cleaner sites had over double the survivorship and approximately three times the surface area of sponges transplanted to disturbed sites. These patterns were independent of community composition. Bioaccumulation of metals in sponges was correlated with survival; however, other factors such as turbidity may be required to explain sponge mortality at some sites. This study adds to evidence that remediation of the physical and chemical environments may be a prerequisite for biological remediation and demonstrates the value of experimental transplants in assessing restoration potential.

Thiocyanate degradation during activated sludge treatment of coke-ovens wastewater

The aim of this work was to determine the reaction pathway and kinetics of thiocyanate (SCN −) degradation during mixed culture (activated sludge) treatment of coke-ovens wastewater. The effect of phenol and cyanide, both present in coke-ovens wastewater, on thiocyanate degradation was also to be determined. Two 6 L perspex sequencing batch reactors (SBRs) were operated continuously for a period of 12 months, fed with coke-ovens wastewater from Port Kembla Steel Works. The results from 18 experimental periods are presented. The degradation of thiocyanate has been quantified by identification of specific rates of removal and oxygen uptake rate. The results indicate that thiocyanate is removed via microbial growth using thiocyanate as a substrate, and that SO 4 2−, NH 4 + and CO 2 are the reaction products. Oxygen uptake rate data and sulphur and nitrogen balances indicate that this reaction was occurring. None of the results obtained showed inhibition of thiocyanate degradation due to phenol. However, phenol was degraded much quicker than thiocyanate, and thus phenol inhibition in coke-ovens wastewater treatment plants, even if it does occur, is not likely to be a significant issue. In contrast, cyanide has been found to have a significant inhibitory effect on the degradation of thiocyanate. This work suggests that thiocyanate removal may be totally inhibited in coke-ovens wastewater at concentrations of CN − in excess of 1 mg/L. Thiocyanate degradation is the slowest and most sensitive process, compared with the removal of phenol and cyanide, and will be the determining factor when identifying the hydraulic residence time required for treatment of coke-ovens wastewater (excluding nitrification).

Community and Nostalgia in Urban Revitalisation: a critique of urban village and creative class strategies as remedies for social ‘problems’

We examine how normative constructions of ‘the creative city’ have entered into Australian planning discourses. Although welcoming a place-based approach, critical consideration is given to how the misappropriation of ‘place making’ in creative city revitalisation plans may enhance rather than address processes of social marginalisation. A Foucauldian framework is employed, exploring the notion of the social production of power through discourse. We draw on a case study of Wentworth Street, a key urban space in Port Kembla, the industrialised district of Wollongong, New South Wales. The study focuses on various ideas of a common place-making theme of the ‘urban village’ evoked by planners, the media and a targeted local resident group (here elderly Macedonians) for a street positioned in ‘crisis’ because of declining infrastructure, services and its association with crime, drugs and prostitution. The case study demonstrates that marginalisation and exclusions are products of creative city strategies and wider, more oppressive urban discourses. But we also demonstrate that despite becoming normative in the texts of planning policies, discourses of place and identity always remain multiple, negotiated, and contradictory.

Investigation of anthropogenic trace metals in sediments of Lake Illawarra, New South Wales

Surficial (<2 cm) and subsurface (cores 20 – 50 cm deep) sediments from Lake Illawarra were analysed for trace metals (Cd, Cu, Pb, Zn) to determine the extent and nature of anthropogenic influence. Sediment samples were size-normalised (<62.5 μm) to determine total acid-extractable metals in the fine fraction, as well as in whole sediment. A four-step sequential extraction technique was used to determine major chemical phases, whereas 1 M HCl, 0.05 M ethylenediamine tetra-acetic acid (EDTA) treatments gave an estimate of the bioavailable portion of the metals. The acid-volatile sulfide simultaneously extracted metals (AVS-SEM) technique was used to provide information on sediment toxicity. Griffins Bay is the most contaminated part of Lake Illawarra and is a major sink for trace metals. The source of metals to this embayment is primarily input from creeks draining the urban and industrial areas of the Port Kembla industrial complex, as opposed to direct atmospheric deposition, as is commonly believed. Trace metals in sediments of Griffins Bay are probably not bioavailable under current physico-chemical conditions, although oxidation of the sediment by anthropogenic or natural processes may result in the conversion to more bioavailable chemical forms.

Accumulation of metals by the seagrass, Z. Capricorni in Lake Illawarra

The concentrations of arsenic, cadmium, copper, lead, manganese, nickel and zinc in Zostera capricorni leaves and rhizomes were analyzed in order to document the accumulation of metals in Lake Illawarra seagrass tissues and to evaluate the potential role of Z. capricorni in the cycling of metals within the lake. Metal concentrations in seagrass tissues were compared with porewater metal concentrations and previously documented sediment concentrations to determine if the seagrass tissues reflect ambient metal concentrations. Zostera leaves and/or rhizomes reflected ambient concentrations of arsenic, cadmium, copper, manganese and zinc. Lead and nickel were not accumulated to high concentrations in most tissue samples from Lake Illawarra, although differences in ambient lead concentrations were reflected in some groups of leaf samples. Metal concentrations in seagrass tissues collected near to the Port Kembla industrial complex, and adjacent to the former Tallawarra power station, were significantly higher than concentrations in seagrass samples collected from the lake entrance. The majority of metals was accumulated to higher concentrations in leaves than in rhizomes; however, arsenic concentrations were highest in rhizomes. Z. capricorni in Lake Illawarra is likely to play a significant role in the cycling of copper, manganese, and possibly lead, via uptake from sediments, acropetal transferrance to leaves, and the release of metals from leaves into the water column or into the detrital food chain via leaf litter.

Recycled water—case study: BlueScope Steel, Port Kembla Steelworks

BlueScope Steel's Port Kembla Steelworks is situated on a 760 hectare site approximately 80 km south of Sydney on the NSW south coast. Port Kembla Steelworks is a 5.1 mil t/y integrated steelworks operating in the top quartile of the world's lowest cost producers. Ten years ago BlueScope Steel was using 55 ML/d of water with a key performance indicator (KPI) of 5.5 kL/slab tonne. By the end of 2004, through a series of capital improvements and recycling schemes water consumption was reduced and water efficiency doubled to take 36 ML/d of water with a KPI of 2.6 kL/slab tonne. By comparison, most steel mills in the US use between 3 and 4 kL/t. By June 2005, with involvement in Sydney Water's Illawarra Waste Water Strategy, Australia's biggest sewage recycling scheme, demand was to be reduced by a further 20 ML/d. The BlueScope Steel Site water reduction program is a sign of the company's commitment to sustainable steel production, to the company bond to work within the community, and is a result of the partnership shared with Sydney Water.

Heavy Metals Contamination in Vegetables Grown in Urban and Metal Smelter Contaminated Sites in Australia

Dietary exposure to heavy metals, namely cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb), zinc (Zn) and copper (Cu), has been identified as a risk to human health through the consumption of vegetable crops. This study investigates the source and magnitude of heavy metal contamination in soil and vegetable samples at 46 sites across four vegetable growing regions in New South Wales, Australia. The four regions Boolaroo, Port Kembla, Cowra and the Sydney Basin were a mix of commercial and residential vegetable growing areas. The extent of metal contamination in soils sampled was greatest in regions located in the vicinity of smelters, such as in Boolaroo and Port Kembla. Soil metal concentrations decreased with depth at these two sites, suggesting contamination due to anthropogenic activities. Cadmium, Pb and Zn contamination was greatest in vegetables from Boolaroo, and Cu concentrations were greatest in vegetables sampled from Port Kembla. At Boolaroo, nearly all the samples exceeded the Australian Food Standards maximum level (ML) (0.01 mg kg−1 fresh weight) of Cd and Pb in vegetables. Over 63% of samples exceeded international food standard guidelines set by the Commission of the European Communities and the Codex Alimentarius Commission. All vegetables sampled from Cowra, which is a relatively pristine site had Cd and Pb levels below the Australian and international food standards guideline values. This study suggests that the Australian guideline values are more conservative in defining the ML for Cd and Pb in vegetable crops. This investigation highlights the increased danger of growing vegetables in the vicinity of smelters.

Population estimation of the Green and golden bell frogLitoria aureaat Port Kembla

Estimates of population size are fundamental to the development of effective management of threatened species. We conducted a tagging study of a population of the endangered Green and Golden Bell Frog Litoria aurea at Port Kembla, on the New South Wales south coast. Over 200 adult frogs were tagged across three breeding sites between November 1998 and January 2000. Population estimation based on the mark and recapture of frogs in 1999-00 suggested that the two larger breeding sites together contain >300 adult frogs.Although these sites were only 500 m apart, no tagged frogs were recorded to move between them. In contrast, one female bell frog moved 1.25 km between one of these and the third site over a 14 month-period.The ratio of male to female frogs was 2.5: 1, suggesting either that the population is male-dominated or that females are more cryptic in their behaviour than males and use habitat differently. Based on this ratio the sites contained at least 85 adult females in 1999-2000. Only 13 frogs were recaptured outside the season of initial capture.The longest interval between captures was 14- 16 months, for three of these frogs. This suggests that few frogs live longer than about 2 years as adults. Given that a small number of other breeding sites occur in Port Kembla, the total population size is estimated to exceed 400 adult frogs. Further study of this important population is needed to refine these estimates of population size and to confirm population stability.

Differential tolerance to metals among populations of the introduced bryozoan Bugula neritina

Resistance to heavy metals is a potentially important trait for introduced marine organisms, facilitating their successful invasion into disturbed natural communities. We conducted laboratory and field experiments to examine differential resistance to copper (Cu) between two source populations of the introduced bryozoan Bugula neritina, originating from a polluted (Port Kembla Harbour, NSW, Australia) and an unpolluted (Botany Bay, NSW, Australia) environment. A laboratory toxicity test was conducted to test the relative resistance of B. neritina recruits from the two sources, by measuring the attachment success, survival and growth of individuals exposed to a range of Cu concentrations (0, 25, 50 and 100 μg l−1 Cu). Upon completion, reciprocal transplantation of the colonies to the original polluted and unpolluted locations was carried out to assess ongoing survival and growth of colonies in the field. B. neritina colonies originating from the polluted Port Kembla Harbour had increased resistance to Cu relative to populations from an unpolluted part of Botany Bay. There appeared to be a cost associated with increased metal tolerance. In the laboratory, Botany Bay recruits displayed significantly higher growth in control treatments and significantly poorer growth at 100 μg l−1 Cu with respect to Port Kembla Harbour individuals, which showed unusually uniform and low growth irrespective of Cu concentration. No difference in attachment success or post-metamorphic survival was observed between populations. Field transplantation showed copper resistance in Port Kembla Harbour colonies constituted an advantage in polluted but not benign environments. The findings of this study provide evidence of the benefits to invasive species of pollution tolerance and suggest that human disturbance can facilitate the establishment and spread of invasive species in marine systems.

Regional Union Response to Regional Restructuring: A Case Study of Union Agency

The article examines how a regional peak union council is structured in its response to regional restructuring. It focuses on an Australian regional peak union council, the South Coast Labour Council (SCLC), which pursued a goal of local employment generation from 1983 to 1996. The SCLC is based in the Illawarra region on the east coast, south of Sydney in the state of New South Wales. Its operations are centred on the city of Wollongong and Port Kembla, where the region’s economic activity is focused. The region had experienced unemployment greater than the state and national averages through the 1980s and 1990s. The article demonstrates how the SCLC’s structure allows it to perform its role as an agent of exchange with governments and employers, and thereby attempts to shape the political and industrial environment in which it resides. At the same time, the environment, in terms of government and employer policy and regional need, shapes the SCLC with it becoming involved with local employment generation.

Environmental Justice in Australia: When the RATS Became IRATE

Environmental justice is a concept used in the United States to describe and analyse environmental politics. That concept also has application outside the country of its origin. In Australia the case study of a dispute between residents, industry and government in the town of Port Kembla provides an example of how environmental justice can be given specific meaning in a local context. Observations of the ‘politics’ of an environmental dispute are made.

Analysis of geometric imperfections in full-scale welded steel silos

The design of metal silo structures is dominated by the need to resist shell buckling failures in service. Shell buckling can occur in many different modes, and the strengths are very sensitive to the form and amplitude of very minor deviations of geometry (geometric imperfections) from the ideal shape. Many imperfection forms have been studied in the theoretical literature on shell buckling, but only one study appears to have ever extensively and rigorously measured the imperfections in real full-scale metal silos: this is the study of the 10,000 tonne Port Kembla grain silos in NSW, Australia. The data from this study of three seemingly identical silos are very extensive and cannot be assimilated without considerable processing. In this paper, the first attempt is made to provide a full characterisation of the imperfection set in a manner that permits them to be used in shell buckling analyses of the silo shell that do not rely on simplifying assumptions.

Fractionation of sedimentary arsenic from Port Kembla Harbour, NSW, Australia

The binding of arsenic in sediments of the heavily industrialised Port Kembla Harbour, NSW, Australia, has been investigated. Both dredge and core samples have been used to develop a sieving/sequential extraction (SE) procedure. Dredge samples included oxic surficial and deeper anoxic sediment. The main core sample analysed was 18 cm deep, sliced at 2 cm intervals. Sediment was sieved to three size ranges (<63 microm, 63-250 microm, >250 microm) and each of these was then subjected to a four step SE, sequentially solubilizing arsenic as ion exchangeable, 1 M HCl soluble, NH(2)OH.HCl soluble, and strong oxidising acid soluble. Concentrations of 50-500 mg As kg(-1) were found, elevated well above local background values. The core sample showed elevated concentrations of arsenic within the top 6-8 cm (300-500 mg As kg(-1)), relative to the deeper sediment (100-200 mg As kg(-1)). Substantial portions of the total arsenic present in the 0-8 cm sediments of core and dredge samples, were found to be soluble in 1 M pH 5 phosphate buffer or 1 M HCl. Arsenic in the lower 8-18 cm of the core displayed different solubility, the fourth stage SE strong acid digestion being required to solubilize >90% of the deep sediment arsenic. It appears that diagenesis had resulted in remobilisation of weakly bound arsenic with subsequent diffusion and deposition in surficial layers. Strong acid soluble arsenic present in deeper sediments has two possible origins: sedimented as strongly bound remaining untouched by diagenetic events, or subjected to diagenetic reactions such as pyritization, which lead to more stable crystalline forms of minerals.

Book Review: Steel Town: The Making and Breaking of Port Kembla

Book Review: Steel Town: The Making and Breaking of Port Kembla

Comparative studies of atmospheric trace elements: improvements in air quality near a copper smelter

Measurements of trace element concentrations, including heavy metals in the atmosphere near a copper smelter in Port Kembla, New South Wales, have shown improvements in air quality, attributed mainly to modernisation of the plant, with more than 85% decrease (for each element) in airborne Cr, Zn, Se, Ag, Cd, Sb, Au and Pb, associated with 74% reduction in Cu concentration. This data was obtained by analysis of air particulate sampled in 2001–2002 for comparison with measurements at the same location in 1978. As expected, measurements of Na and Cl derived from the marine aerosol at this coastal location showed no corresponding change. The recent analysis of air particulate shows significant correlations between the monthly concentrations of Cu, Zn, Se, Ag and Pb, associated with industry, hence giving a high enrichment in airborne particulate by reference to the element/Sc ratios in ‘average’ soil. These enrichments, shown by heavy metals in particular, were two orders of magnitude greater than the values recorded in the atmosphere of rural areas; however, it is clear that air quality at Port Kembla is much improved and predominantly related to the modernisation of the smelter.

Metal partitioning in soil profiles in the vicinity of an industrial complex, New South Wales, Australia

The industrial complex of Port Kembla, NSW, Australia comprises a copper smelter, steelworks and associated industries. As part of an investigation into the regional extent of a suite of metals in soils, sequential extraction was undertaken in selected soil profiles. A single aqua regia extraction and a six-step sequential extraction procedure were applied to soil samples at six different horizons to a depth of 50 cm from: (i) a contaminated, disturbed site located about 70 m from a major point source (C1); (ii) a contaminated undisturbed area situated 1 km from the contamination source (C2); and (iii) an uncontaminated, undisturbed area located 22 km from the complex (C3). Cadmium, Cr, Cu, Pb and Zn were determined by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) and ICP atomic emission spectrometry (ICP-AES). In the uncontaminated soil profile, metals were preferentially bound to the less mobile fractions (crystalline Fe oxides, sulfides and organic matter) except for Pb, which was preferentially bound to hydrous Fe–Mn oxides. Metal partitioning was relatively constant with depth, except for Zn. In the contaminated undisturbed soil profile (C2), the proportion of mobile metals decreased with depth. Metal partitioning at the lower levels was similar to that of core C3. At the surface, Cr was found in the sulfides and organic matter fractions, and Cu was preferentially bound to hydrous Fe–Mn oxides, crystalline Fe oxides, and sulfides and organic matter. Lead was preferentially bound to carbonates, and Zn was fairly evenly distributed among the different fractions. In the contaminated disturbed soil profile, a large proportion of metals were found in the labile forms to a depth of 40–50 cm. Based on the assumption that the mobility of metals decreases in the order of the extraction sequence, the difference in mobility amongst metals in the three soil cores measured in this study were in the order: (Cd) &gt; Zn ≈ Cu &gt; Pb &gt; Cr. The two contaminated sites may represent potential health and environmental hazards because of their high soluble metal content and hence a site-specific investigation is required.

Metal concentrations in soils around the copper smelter and surrounding industrial complex of Port Kembla, NSW, Australia

Anthropogenic emissions of metals from sources such as smelters are an international problem, but there is limited published information on emissions from Australian smelters. The objective of this study was to investigate the regional distribution of heavy metals in soils in the vicinity of the industrial complex of Port Kembla, NSW, Australia, which comprises a copper smelter, steelworks and associated industries. Soil samples ( n=25) were collected at the depths of 0–5 and 5–20 cm, air dried and sieved to <2 mm. Aqua regia extractable amounts of As, Cr, Cu, Pb and Zn were analysed by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) and inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry (ICP-AES). Outliers were identified from background levels by statistical methods. Mean background levels at a depth of 0–5 cm were estimated at 3.2 mg/kg As, 12 mg/kg Cr, 49 mg/kg Cu, 20 mg/kg Pb and 42 mg/kg Zn. Outliers for elevated As and Cu values were mainly present within 4 km from the Port Kembla industrial complex, but high Pb at two sites and high Zn concentrations were found at six sites up to 23 km from Port Kembla. Chromium concentrations were not anomalous close to the industrial complex. There was no significant difference of metal concentrations at depths of 0–5 and 5–20 cm, except for Pb and Zn. Copper and As concentrations in the soils are probably related to the concentrations in the parent rock. From this investigation, the extent of the contamination emanating from the Port Kembla industrial complex is limited to 1–13 km, but most likely <4 km, depending on the element; the contamination at the greater distance may not originate from the industrial complex.

Regional Labour Councils, Local Employment Generation and Labour-Community Coalitions

Regional labour councils have been involved in building labour-community coalitions. The case study of the South Coast Labour Council demonstrates that a regional labour council can engage in a broader make-up of lobbying partners than is generally recognised in the literature, which includes labour-community coalitions that are not geographically, politically or socially close. The South Coast Labour Council did not focus on employer opposition, as is usually the case with building labour-community coalitions, but rather, it focused on lobbying farmers to increase pressure on government officials for the siting of a grain terminal in Port Kembla, near Wollongong in the Illawarra region of NSW. It pursued broader aims of labour-community coalitions to include local employment generation.

Heavy metal partitioning in soil profiles in the vicinity of an industrial complex and potential health implications

The industrial complex of Port Kembla, New South Wales, Australia comprises a Cu smelter, steelworks and associated industries. As part of an investigation into the regional extent in soils of a suite of metals, speciation in selected soil profiles was undertaken. A single aqua regia extraction and a six-step sequential extraction procedure were applied to soil samples at six different horizons to a depth of 50 cm from: (1) a contaminated, disturbed site located about 70 m from a major point source (C2); (2) a contaminated undisturbed area situated 1.1 km from the contamination source (C1); and (3) an uncontaminated, undisturbed area located 22.1 km from the complex (C3). In the uncontaminated soil profile, Pb was preferentially bound to hydrous Fe-Mn oxides and the less mobile fractions (crystalline Fe oxides, sulphides and organic matter). Lead partitioning was relatively constant with depth. In the contaminated undisturbed soil profile, the proportion of mobile Pb decreased with depth. Lead partitioning at the lower levels was similar to that of core C3. At the surface, Pb was preferentially bound to carbonates. In the contaminated disturbed soil profile, a large proportion of Pb was found in the labile forms to a depth of 40-50 cm. The contaminated disturbed site represents potential health and environmental hazards.

Controlling sidewall growth at BHP's no. 5 blast furnace Port Kembla : Fraser, B. et al. Ironmaking Conference Proceedings, 2002, (61), 191–204

Controlling sidewall growth at BHP's no. 5 blast furnace Port Kembla : Fraser, B. et al. Ironmaking Conference Proceedings, 2002, (61), 191–204