Port-Harcourt Research Articles

Evaluation of Some Haemorheologic Parameters amongst Automotive Spray Painters in Port Harcourt, Nigeria

Background/Objectives: Automotive Spray-Painters are at a higher risk of exposure to hazardous chemicals such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons – benzene inclusive, and heavy metals which may cause adverse health outcomes. The aim of the study was to evaluate effect of exposure to spray paints on some haemorheological parameters in individuals involved in automotive spray painting within Port Harcourt Metropolis. Method: This case control study recruited 52 participants: 30 automotive spray-painters and 22 controls. The study was carried out in Port Harcourt Metropolis, Nigeria. Venous blood samples were drawn from the participants (age 20 to 65 years) and examined for packed cell volume, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, fibrinogen and haemoglobin. Semi-structured questionnaire was used to obtain information from participants. Result: Participants from painting occupation had significantly higher ESR (p = 0.0450) as a result of increase in number of years in Automotive Spray-Painting. Increased ESR may be an indication of inflammation in the body. There was no statistical significance between Automotive Spray-Painters and control subjects when values of haemoglobin concentration, packed cell volume, fibrinogen concentration and erythrocyte concentration was compared in Automotive Spay-Painters, however, their values were increased than that control subjects at p<0.05. Conclusion: The study revealed that prolonged inhalation of benzene and other aromatic toxic compounds in paints caused slight increase in haemorheological parameters (PCV, HB, ESR and fibrinogen) of Automotive Spray-Painters due to exposure to paint fumes, a risk factor for inflammation of vital organs, venous thrombosis and thromboembolism; and predisposes Spray-Painters to many health disorders which can affect their lungs, heart, blood vessels, and ultimately the transport of oxygen to the brain.

Seasonal Variation of Air Pollutants Concentration around Port Harcourt Metropolis, Rivers State, Nigeria

With the rapid population growth and industrialization across developing countries in recent times, the release of air pollutants into the environment has drawn global attention to the health-related impact on humans. The study examined the seasonal variation of air pollutants concentration around Port Harcourt metropolis, Rivers State, Nigeria. Using areas such as Airport Road (AR), Rumuokoro (Rum) and Nigerian Port Authority (NPA), the air pollutants such as nitrogen dioxide (NO2), sulphur dioxide (SO2), carbon monoxide (CO), particulate matter (PM1, PM10, PM2.5), Hydrogen sulphide (H2S), Methane (CH4), Ammonia (NH3), Ozone (O3), Carbon IV oxide (CO2) were assessed during wet season (June) and dry season (December) using Aeroqual 500 Multi-Gas Analyzer, with up-to-date calibration. At Rum, the NO2 (0.006ppm and 0.122pm) and SO2 (0.03ppm and 0.05ppm) were within the WHO-AQG, while the CO concentrations of 18ppm and 6ppm were above the WHO-AQG. H2S was undetected at all locations, and CH4 concentration was higher at AR (58ppm and 65ppm) than at other locations, while the detected O3 across the locations and seasons (AR-0.33ppm and 0.36ppm, Rum-0.48ppm and 0.31ppm, NPA-0.18ppm and 0.11ppm) are within the WHO-AQG. Particulate maters-PM1, PM10, and PM2.5 were detected across the locations and seasons, while the highest concentration was reported at Rum (21ppm and 29ppm, 55ppm and 65ppm, and 41ppm). The variation in air pollutants across the studied locations suggests the influence of similar sources or patterns based on anthropogenic actions or microclimate parameters. There is a need to develop monitoring mechanisms, regulations and enforcement measures for air quality management practices.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging Brain Findings Among Patients With Seizure Disorder In Port Harcourt Metropolis

OBJECTIVE: Seizure disorder is one of the most common chronic neurological disorders, affecting approximately 50 million worldwide. About 100,000 new cases are reported in Nigeria each year. To comprehend the prevalence of Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) abnormalities and their correlation with seizures, local data is essential. METHOD: A retrospective study design was adopted to review clinical data and MRI reports of 122 patients at a tertiary medical imaging facility in Port Harcourt, Rivers State between January 2015 and January 2023. Demography, image findings, and the relationship between the MRI findings, age, and sex were data obtained and analysed using descriptive and inferential statistics with the degree of significance set at p < 0.05. RESULTS: This study involved 64 females and 58 males, aged 0 to 89 years. About 69 (57%) patients had normal brain MRI findings, while 53 (43%) were abnormal. The most common pathologies noted were cerebrovascular disorder 14 (11.48%), followed by white matter disease 13 (10.66%), and brain tumour 10 (8.20%). Age group 0-17 years had the highest number of pathological findings (20/53; 37%), followed by age group 36-53 years (11/53; 21%), and the age group 54-57 years (9/53; 17%). Age group spanning from 73 to 86 years, had the least of abnormal findings (4/53; 0.1%). No significant association existed between sex and MRI findings. CONCLUSION: Brain MRI findings were normal in majority of seizure patients; the most common findings were cerebrovascular abnormalities, white matter disease, and brain tumours respectively, which were more common in younger patients. The study emphasizes the significance of early MRI scans in identifying seizure-related brain pathologies, particularly in children and adolescents in their diagnostic workup of seizure disorder.

A Comparative Study of the Rate of Helicobacter pylori infection Using Three Diagnostic Techniques among Patients in Rivers State

Background: Approximately 89% of gastric cancers are attributable to H. pylori infection, however, only 1 in 5 patients survive longer than 5 years after diagnosis. Evidence has shown that screening and eradication of H. pylori in young adults would be cost-effective and could prevent 1 gastric cancer in every 4 to 6 cases. Diagnostic tests used to detect Helicobacter pylori are either invasive or noninvasive methods. These tests have varying sensitivity and specificity, having about 90% accuracy in the diagnosis of H. pylori infection in clinical practice. Aim: This study aims at detecting Helicobacter pylori using antibody-antigen, stool antigen and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and to compare the infection rate among the different diagnostic techniques. Methodology: This was a cross-sectional study. The participants included attendants to tertiary and private hospitals in Port Harcourt metropolis for medical treatment. Blood and stool samples were collected from one hundred and eighty (180) subjects aged 1 to 60 years and above. Ethical approval for the study was obtained from the Rivers State University Teaching Hospital Ethics Committee. Convenience sampling technique was deployed. Samples were collected from subjects who consented to the study. All samples collected were analyzed in Medical Microbiology Laboratory, Rivers State Teaching Hospital and subsequently, molecular analysis was carried out. Results: The blood antibodies test (serology) method shows a greater number of positive cases (43.9%) than stool antigen method (8.3%). Also, out of the 75% stool antigen positive samples, subjected to more specific PCR, only 25% were positive. There was a significant difference (p-value of <0.001) in sensitivity between antigen and serology, there was also a significant difference (p-value of <0.025) between antigen and PCR result outcomes. Conclusion: The study has shown that there is a notable variation in the diagnosis of H pylori among the laboratory techniques used.

Distribution of air quality data across stratified areas of Port Harcourt metropolis

Distribution of Air Quality Data across seven stratified areas of Port Harcourt Metropolis was carried out. The study utilized a total of 18 parameters from four different air quality datasets obtained from 24 sampling points during field data collection. The sampling points were structured and stratified into residential, industrial, commercial, recreational, transport, dumpsite and abattoir areas. Air quality data were acquired using a multi-digital potable tool, Aerosol Gas Monitor and TESTO Gas Analyser for meteorological data, particulate matters (PM), gaseous emissions and heavy metals. Results showed that the concentrations of air quality data were not evenly distributed across the seven stratified areas, an indication of the influence of location-based activities on the distribution of air quality parameters. The minimum and maximum values of wind speed, temperature and relative humidity were obtained within Residential and Transport Areas, Abattoir and Dumpsite Areas, and, Industrial and Recreational Areas with numerical values of 1.1ms-1 and 3.7ms-1, 27.20C and 350C, and, 67.8% and 923% for wind speed, temperature and relative humidity respectively. The values of TSP, PM2.5 and PM10 ranged from 53 to 255 μg/m3, 13 to 90 μg/m3 and 40 to 169μg/m3 for TSP, PM2.5 and PM10 respectively with the lowest and highest values obtained within Residential and Dumpsite Areas respectively. The concentrations of NO2 and SO2 exceeded the standards of WHO, NAAQS and FMEnv in Industrial, Dumpsite and Abattoir Areas. Lead ( Pb) showed very high values within Dumpsite Area (0.954mg/kg), Industrial Area (0.372mg/kg) and Transport Area (0.077mg/kg).

Psycho-Social Predictors of Parental Involvement in Academic Activities of Junior Secondary School Students in Port Harcourt Metropolis

This study investigated psycho-social predictors of parental involvement in the academic activities of junior secondary school students in Port Harcourt Metropolis. The study was guided by four research questions and their corresponding null hypotheses. The design for the study was correlational research design. The population of the study consisted of 16,835 parents of 24,343 JSS3 students (Source: School Board, 2024) from 278 public secondary school students in Port Harcourt Metropolis (Post Primary Education Board, 2024). A sample of 689 parents who are alive and can read and write, as reported by their children (The JSS3 students) was used for the study. Multi-stage sampling procedure was used in drawing the sample. Four instruments were used for the study. They are, Self-efficacy Scale (SES), Locus of Control Scale (LCS) Family Conflict Scale (FCS) and Parental Involvement Scale (PIS). The validity of the instruments were done by two experts in Educational Psychology. To ensure the reliability of the instruments Cronbach alpha () technique was used. The alpha coefficients of 0.75, 0.82, 0.67 and 0.76 were obtained for family conflict, self-efficacy, locus of control and parental involvement scale respectively. Multiple regression, simple regression and ANOVA were used for data analysis. Research questions 1 and 3 were answered using simple regression, research question 2 and 4 were answered using multiple regression. Hypotheses I and 3 were tested using ANOVA associated with simple regression while hypotheses 2 and 4 were tested using ANOVA associated with multiple regression. All analyses were done at 0.05 alpha level. Results revealed among others that self-efficacy did not significantly predict parental involvement in the academic activities of junior secondary school students in Port Harcourt Metropolis while locus of control and family conflict significantly predicted parental involvement in the academic activities of junior secondary school students in Port Harcourt Metropolis. It was recommended amongst others that parents should always make effort to exhibit internal locus of control as this will help them get better involved in the academic activities of their children.

Spatial Analysis of Abattoir Locations and Their Proximity to Residential Areas in Port Harcourt Metropolis

Spatial Analysis of Abattoir Locations and Their Proximity to Residential Areas in Port Harcourt Metropolis

Performance of advanced-deep learning algorithm for modeling and prediction of rain height over some selected locations in the tropics and sub-tropics zone for radio propagation applications

As demand for high-frequency broadband communication services keeps rising, rain-induced attenuation remains the predominant threat to radiowave propagation. Accurate prediction of attenuation requires continuous measurement and monitoring of rain-induced meteorological parameters, specifically rain rate and rain height, due to their spatio-temporal variations. Rain height is an upper dataset mostly computed from Zero- degree Isotherm Heights (ZDIH) measured by radar. This research proposes a novel approach for predicting rain height from earth surface data such as surface temperature, pressure, total cloud cover, dew point temperature, surface solar radiation, water vapor amount in the air, and humidity. This research investigates the relationship between meteorological surface data and rain height. Subsequently, six machine learning models were employed for predicting rain height using the ten years surface data as input variables. The models were applied to six sub-tropical (Polokwane, Pretoria. and Cape Town) and tropical (Sokoto, Akure, and Port Harcourt (PH)) stations in South Africa and Nigeria, respectively. Analysis of the results shows that the Gradient Boosting Algorithm (GBA) performed best with determination coefficients greater than 0.80 and RMSE less than 350 in all three stations in South Africa. However, all the models failed to produce good result for the Nigeria stations. The Random Forest model has the fairest performance metrics with r2 of 0.40, 0.46 and 0.46 in Sokoto, Akure and PH. respectively. GBA is recommended for predicting rain height in South Africa. The research outcome would assist radio engineers in improving the prediction of rain-induced attenuation and determining appropriate fade mitigation techniques.

Diversity of Mycotoxin-Producing Fungi in Leafy and Fruit Vegetables Sold in Port Harcourt Metropolis, Nigeria

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by fungi and are capable of causing diseases and even death in both humans and other animals. This study investigated the diversity of mycotoxin-producing fungi from leafy (Telfairia occidentalis and Bassica oleracea) and fruit (Solanum lycopersicum and Cucumis sativus) vegetables sold in Port Harcourt metropolis, Nigeria using molecular techniques. The fungi were isolated from vegetable samples showing signs of disease using standard methods. DNA extraction and Polymerase chain reaction were carried out at the molecular laboratory of Regional Centre of Biotechnology and Bioresources research, University of Port Harcourt. The isolates were screened for the presence of mycotoxigenic genes (nor1 (aflatoxin), tri6 (trichothecene), otanps (Ochratoxin A), fum13 (fumonisin) and ZEA (zearalenone)) using PCR technique. The isolates containing mycotoxins were identified using ITS gene sequences. Ten out of the eighteen isolates were positive for four (nor1, tri6, otanps and fum13) out of the five mycotoxigenic genes screened. The nine isolates included fungi belong to six genera: Meyerozyma, Pithomyces, Fusarium, Trametes, Penicillium and Aspergillus. The ten isolates were classified as Meyerozyma carbbica RCBBR_Sf13, Pithomyces chartarum RCBBR_Sf5, Fusarium falciforme RCBBR_Sf10, Trametes duplexa RCBBR_Sf17, Trametes versicolor RCBBR_Sf2a, Trametes duplexa RCBBR_Mf1, Fusarium longifundum RCBBR_Mf4, Penicillium soosanum RCBBR_Mf7, Aspergillus aflatoxiformans RCBBR_Sf9, Fusarium circinatum RCBBR_Sf3 based on their ITS gene sequences. Their ITS gene sequences have been deposited in GenBank under the accession numbers OR816039-OR816047, with the exception of Fusarium circinatum RCBBR_Sf3 which could not accession. This study has demonstrated that mycotoxin-producing fungi are diverse and widespread in leafy and fruit vegetables sold within Port Harcourt Metropolis. This raises both public health and food security concerns.

Child Sexual Abuse among Street Children: A comparative study of On-Street and Of-Street children in Port Harcourt Metropolis, South-South, Nigeria

Child Sexual Abuse among Street Children: A comparative study of On-Street and Of-Street children in Port Harcourt Metropolis, South-South, Nigeria

Analysis Of Land Use And Land Cover Changes In Port Harcourt Metropolis Using Geospatial Techniques

The study examined Land Use and Land Cover Changes in Port Harcourt Metropolis Using Geospatial Techniques from 1990 to 2020. The study made use of geospatial and longitudinal data sourced from the United States Geological Survey (USGS), employing Google Earth Engine to analyse Landsat and Google Earth Imagery of the area. Utilizing satellite imagery with a spatial resolution of 30 meters by 30 meters, supplemented with high-resolution Google Earth imagery, the study offers an extensive concept of the dynamic changes in land use in the four epochs of 1990, 2000, 2010 and 2020. The methodology entails processing and analysing satellite images to identify and classify different land use and land cover types as well as tracking their changes over time. This technique allows for precise mapping and assessment of the trend, extent, rate, and spatial patterns of land use changes. The study employed supervised classification, change detection, and temporal analysis, to ensure robust and accurate results. ANOVA statistics was deployed to test the stated hypothesis for the study. The findings revealed a drastic reduction in land use coverage for the various land use classes in the epochs studied. Open spaces showed a reduction from 62,262.2ha (58.92%) in 1990 to 41,832ha (39.32%) in 2020; farmland reduced from 21,172.5ha (20.04%) in 1990 to 1,474.65ha (1.4%) in 2020; built-up area increased from 9,006.03ha (8.52%) in 1990 to 41,502.8 (39.28%) in 2022; water bodies increased from 1,529.73ha (1.45%) in 1990 to 3,424.32ha (3.24%) in 2020. These changes have profound implications for environmental sustainability, urban planning, and resource management in the area. The study concludes that there has been substantial land use and land cover changes in Port Harcourt metropolis, driven primarily by urbanization. Thus, it is recommended that the government implement stricter urban planning and sustainable land management practices to mitigate the impact of rapid land use and land cover changes in Port Harcourt

Impact of Play Therapy on Learning Outcome in Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Pupils: An Experimental Approach

The study examined the impact of play therapy on learning outcome on attention deficit hyperactivity disorder pupils in Port Harcourt Metropolis, Rivers State. Quasi experimental design within which the Solomon four group design was employed. Using purposive sampling technique, a sample of 60 primary three pupils who met the criteria for ADHD were randomly assigned into the four groups which was made up of two experimental groups and two control groups. Two valid instruments titled: Conners' Rating Scales-Revised (CRS-R) for assessment of Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder and Mathematics Achievement Test (MAT) were used for collection of data in the study. The research questions were answered with mean and standard deviation. Hypotheses were tested for significance at 0.05 using dependent sample t-test, Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) and One-way analysis of Variance (one-way ANOVA). The result revealed that play therapy is effective in the improvement of learning outcome of attention deficit hyperactivity pupils. There was a significant difference of play therapy on learning outcome among the groups (experimental group 1, control group 1, experimental group 2 and control group 2). Based on these findings’ recommendations were made.

Planning Green Infrastructure: Provisions and Alteration in Prominent Cities of Nigeria

Abstract: Green infrastructure provides physical aesthetics, healthier and quality environment for urban settlements globe. However, many urban centres in the third world countries are deprived the benefits of green infrastructure and subjected to unhealthy conditions that endanger human safety, land uses and the entire ecological system of both macro and micro environment due to poor planning and government policies. This research therefore, compared the effect of green infrastructure alteration on the physical environment of two major cities (Port Harcourt and Calabar) Nigeria. The study sampled 6 green zones and 250 residents for both cities under investigation while Duncan Multiple Comparism analysis (DMCA), mathematical percentage (MP) and Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was adopted as the statistical analysis implements. The findings established that calabar benefits from green infrastructure that improves the city aesthetics and other aspect of the environment through proper physical planning and government policies than Port Harcourt city of Nigeria at (P<0.05). In furtherance, the study revealed that usage understanding, budget constraint, wrong cost benefit analysis, and poor environmental management and maintenance strategies were identified as the key determinants of naturally retained and planned green infrastructure alteration in both cities, and discovered that, the city of Calabar was built on smart and resilient development strategies than Port Harcourt metropolis of Nigeria. The study recommended that town planning authorities should be charge with the responsibilities of smart and resilient city building through green infrastructure development and avoidance of informal alteration of such infrastructure. Also, suggested the need for frequent acquisition of data on green infrastructure development and inclusion in all land use development.

Knowledge and Utilization of Post-Abortion Care Services among Women of Reproductive Age in Rivers State University Teaching Hospital, Port Harcourt Nigeria

The study assessed the knowledge and utilization of post abortion care services among women of reproductive age (15–49years) in Rivers State University Teaching Hospital. It was designed to determine women’s understanding of post-abortion care, the extent to which women use post abortion care services and identify reasons for non-use of post abortion care services among women of reproductive age. A simple sampling technique involving purposive sampling was used to randomly elicit 114 respondents. Data were collected with the aid of a structured questionnaire and analysed using frequency, means, percentages and regression analysis. The result showed that the respondents had an average age of 28years, 2 times deliveries and one abortion/miscarriage done averagely on the 11th-12th week. 50% were married, 43% were single, 91.2% were Christians and 74.6% have attended higher institution. The results showed the respondents had good understanding of post-abortion care. About 63.2% of the women were currently preventing pregnancy by regularly using barrier method e.g., Condom (1st in ranking/usage), Injectable (2nd), Pills (3rd) and Natural method (4th). The results also showed that the health facility’s distance (farness) from home, the cost of obtaining post abortion care services in the health facility, fear that some post abortion care services such as family planning injections can cause infertility, and healthcare providers’ attitude were the reasons for non-use of post-abortion care. The multinomial logistic regression analysis showed a highly significant difference of the effect of education on women’s knowledge of post-abortion care. The result of the multiple regression analysis however, showed no significant difference of the effect of occupation on the use of post-abortion care services. The study recommended that awareness programs on sex education/family planning and post-abortion care among women should be intensified.

Assessment of Bacteriological Quality and Determination of Antibiogram of Bacteria Isolated from Water Used in Selected Hospitals within Port Harcourt City and Obio/Akpor Local Government Area of Rivers State

Study’s Novelty/Excerpt This study investigates the bacteriological quality and antibiogram profiles of water samples from hospitals in Port Harcourt Metropolis, highlighting significant contamination and multi-drug resistance among isolated bacterial species. The research identifies the presence of various bacteria, including Staphylococcus sp., Bacillus sp., and Klebsiella sp., with notable resistance to commonly used antibiotics, underscoring the potential public health risks associated with hospital water sources. This study's findings emphasize the need for rigorous water treatment protocols to ensure safe consumption and reduce the risk of antibiotic-resistant infections in hospital settings. Full Abstract Water is vital for life, and water void of bacterial contamination is vital for hospital consumption and use. This study aimed to determine the bacteriological quality and antibiogram of different water samples in some hospitals within Port Harcourt Metropolis. Water samples were collected in different hospitals in Port Harcourt and Obio/Akpor Local Government Area of Rivers State, Nigeria. Based on water dispensers, outdoor taps, washing hand faucets, and faucets in the toilet and theatre. The bacteriological quality of the water samples, coagulase, haemolysis, biofilm, starch, and antibiogram were determined using standard microbiological procedures. The mean range of the total heterotrophic bacterial, staphylococcal, faecal coliform, and total coliform counts of the water samples were 8.5±0.7×105 to 3.8±2.1×107, 1.2±0.2 to 2.8±0.3×105, 0.0±0.0 to 8.0±4.2×103 and 0.0±0.0 to 1.1±0.1×105 CFU/mL, respectively. The prevalence of the isolated bacteria is Staphylococcus sp (17.5%), Bacillus sp (12.5%), Enterobacter sp. (12.5%), Klebsiella sp. (10%), Citrobacter sp. (5%), Escherichia coli (2.5%) and Siccibacter sp. (2.5%). Staphylococcus, Bacillus, Enterobacter, Klebsiella, Citrobacter, Escherichia coli, and Siccibacter sp. were positive for haemolysis and α-amylase production, 80% of Staphylococcus sp were coagulase positive while 46, 40, 57 and 25% of Staphylococcus, Bacillus, Enterobacter, and Klebsiella sp produced biofilm. The antibiogram showed multi-drug resistance (0.2-1.0). Levofloxacin was 60% effective against Staphylococcus sp, while susceptibility of Klebsiella and Citrobacter sp to ofloxacin, gentamycin, nalidixic acid, and levofloxacin 66.7%. The water samples from these hospitals might not be good for drinking. Thus, treatment of water before use is recommended. The high antibiotic resistance could imply the emergence of resistant isolates in hospital water.

Patterns and Variability of Rainfall and Temperature in Port Harcourt Metropolis, Rivers State, Nigeria

Patterns and Variability of Rainfall and Temperature in Port Harcourt Metropolis, Rivers State, Nigeria

Effects of noise pollution on the residents of Port Harcourt Metropolis

Effects of noise pollution on the residents of Port Harcourt Metropolis

Socio-demographic determinants of safety practices among medical radiological workers in Port Harcourt Metropolis of Rivers State

Socio-demographic determinants of safety practices among medical radiological workers in Port Harcourt Metropolis of Rivers State

Determinants of knowledge, attitude and practices of refuse disposal method among residents of Port Harcourt Metropolis

Determinants of knowledge, attitude and practices of refuse disposal method among residents of Port Harcourt Metropolis

Entrepreneurship Education Structure and SMEs Performance amongst Managers in Port Harcourt Metropolis, Rivers State, Nigeria

The importance of entrepreneurial education skills in supporting countries’ economic growth and development has been recognized by experts in the field of accounting, finance, sociology and economics. Today, the issue of entrepreneurship skills is becoming so increasingly important that it has turned into a priority for developing countries including Nigeria. This study empirically explores the relationship between entrepreneurship education skills and venture performance amongst managers of small and medium scale firm in Port Harcourt metropolis. Descriptive survey design was adopted and correctly completed 400 sets of questionnaire were used. Series of statistical analysis were applied including mean, aggregate mean, standard deviation, and Spearman rank correlation with the aid of statistical package for social sciences, version 25. The empirical results indicate that psychomotor education significantly relates to profitability and market share. We therefore conclude that entrepreneurship education structure relates to small and medium enterprises performance amongst managers in Port Harcourt Metropolis, Rivers State, Nigeria, and recommend that policy makers should consider introducing entrepreneurship in primary and secondary schools through integration to other subjects or as a stand-alone subject. This could function as an introductory stage which will prepare students for more advanced entrepreneurship education structure in the small. Policy makers should also create conducive entrepreneurship education centers within the business eco-system to enable traders attend free workshops when scheduled. Traders can be pre-informed about the benefits of attending/participating in business workshops through social media before slating any.