Porous Borders Research Articles

COVID-19 Pandemic Control: Lessons Learned From Hai Phong City, Vietnam.

The COVID-19 (coronavirus disease-2019) pandemic has affected almost all countries in the world. When the first cases were reported from Hubei, China, in late December 2019, the Vietnamese authorities acknowledged the potential risk of an epidemic having had the experience of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) and the Avian flu. When it was clear that there was human-to-human transmission in the epidemic in Wuhan that started in January 2020, the Vietnamese government, health care system, and civil society were rapidly mobilized. How has a country with a population of about 100 million and a long porous border to China managed to prevent a larger outbreak? This case history is about how Hai Phong city implemented the initial COVID-19 response. Hai Phong reacted quickly after the COVID-19 outbreak in China by, quarantining people coming from pandemic areas, and carrying out contact tracing and extensive testing, closing schools and universities and implementing two weeks of social distancing measures. There are no detected positive cases until May 18, 2020 in Hai Phong.

Rural Banditry in Northwest Nigeria Amidst a Global Pandemic: A Gender Perspective

Rural banditry in Nigeria’s northwest in recent years has made the zone a hotbed of violence. What started as localized disputes in the agro-pastoral sector in 2010 has today metamorphosed into an intractable crisis posing a major threat to national and regional security. Banditry in the zone is characterized by large scale killings, abductions, raids on communities, rape of women and girls and displacement of people and is exacerbated by collapse of governance and absence of law and order, injustice, porous borders and proliferation of Small and Light Weapons (SALWs) among others. In the midst of the coronavirus pandemic, banditry continues to take devastating tolls on its victims, especially women who are the most vulnerable in times of crisis. Women and girls face a double challenge of gender-based violence perpetrated by bandits and intimate partners during the global health crisis. The pervasiveness, intensity and intractability of banditry in the midst of the coronavirus pandemic is worrisome as it could make worse existing gender inequalities such as rape, transactional sex, child marriages, increase in the number of out-of-school girls and the practice of purdah. To address the conflict, a multi-approach involving all stakeholders in the conflict is recommended.

A Qualitative Risk Assessment of Rabies Reintroduction Into the Rabies Low-Risk Zone of Bhutan.

In Bhutan, dog-mediated rabies has been successfully eliminated from most regions of the country but remains endemic in the Southern region and sporadic incursions are also reported in the East. Elimination of rabies from the southern part of Bhutan is challenged by the porous border with the neighboring states of India which facilitates free and unregulated movement of animals. Around 17 outbreaks of rabies are reported annually in dogs and other domestic animals, posing continuous public health risks and economic losses. Furthermore, due to anthropogenic factors, such as increasing human settlements along highways, increased animal transportation, and the complex and changing human-pet relationship, there is potential to reintroduce rabies from rabies high-risk zone to rabies low-risk zone. This study was undertaken to estimate the risk of rabies re-introduction to the rabies low-risk zone by performing a qualitative risk assessment. The assessment was conducted for three risk pathways (stray dog-pathway, pet dog-pathway and cattle-pathway) under two scenarios: (1) no risk mitigation measures in place and (2) current risk mitigation measures in place. The current control measures include Government led programs, such as mass dog vaccination and dog population management, regulation of the movment of animals through pre-travel check-up and health certification, regular awareness education and rabies surveillance in the rabies endemic areas. The probability of an event occurring was assigned using the data from the available literature. Where gaps in knowledge existed, expert opinion, elicited through modified Delphi method, was used. Under the scenario in which no risk mitigation measures were in place, the risk of rabies re-introduction was estimated to be medium for the stray-dog pathway with a low level of uncertainty, low for pet-dog pathway with a low level of uncertainty, and very low for the cattle-pathway with a medium level of uncertainty. When current risk-mitigation measures were included, the risk of rabies reintroduction was estimated to be very low for the stray-dog pathway with a medium level of uncertainty, low for the pet dog-pathway with a low level of uncertainty, and extremely low for the cattle-pathway with a medium level of uncertainty. The risk of rabies re-introduction through all the pathways was greater than negligible. These findings highlight the importance of maintaining and enhancing current risk mitigation measures to prevent re-introduction of rabies into rabies low-risk zone.

Weeds in the land of Gross National Happiness: Knowing what to manage by creating a baseline alien plant inventory for Bhutan

Biological invasions are a serious threat globally, but particularly in developing countries. Bhutan is unique among South Asian countries in that it has a rich biodiversity, and its people have a ‘sacred’ responsibility to protect the environment and native biodiversity; conversely it is also considered a ‘crisis ecoregion’ because of significant threats to biodiversity from anthropocentric activities. Managing biological invasions is difficult without a comprehensive baseline of the alien species present. An alien plant inventory for Bhutan was created by examining an extensive array of information and data sources such as herbaria records, published floras, unpublished documents, and from personal communications. The alien plant flora including cultivated taxa in Bhutan comprises 139 families, 545 genera and 964 species. Of these, 626 species occur only in cultivation, whilst the other 338 species occur in the wild (spontaneous); 131 (39%) casuals, 103 (31%) naturalised and 101 (30%) invasive. The major of naturalised alien plants were introduced as pasture species (32%), ornamentals (24%) and from unintentional sources (22%). Whilst, the major of invasive species were introduced unintentionally (76%), as ornamentals (15%) and pasture species (3%). Because a large proportion of alien plants have been deliberately introduced, implementation of both pre-border weed risk assessment and post-border weed risk management approaches can be effective in Bhutan, despite the country’s open and porous borders. Such a biosecurity approach could also be implemented on a plant import sector basis, as only four sectors account for 86% of alien plant introductions, largely through one entry point. The baseline inventory and analysis will shape future management and policy directions for alien plants in Bhutan.

Drivers of Clan Conflicts: A Perspective of the Role of Al-Shabaab in Garissa County, Kenya

The purpose of the study was to investigate the relationship between the drivers of intra-clan-based conflicts and the involvement of external actors that has remained indefinable in Garissa County. The three sub-counties: Garissa Township, Ijara and Fafi were purposively selected for the study because of prolonged and unresolved intra-clan conflicts coupled with militia group of Al-Shabaab attacks over the past years. Qualitative approach was used to seek understanding of drivers of intra-clan conflicts and involvement of violent extremism. The study involves primarily 35 Key Informants drawn from security agencies, Clan elders, Religious leaders and Civil societies across the three sub-counties. The study established that competition over natural resources: water; pasture and land are the main causes of intra-clan conflicts. The respondents attest that intra-clan conflicts have been accelerated by clan identity politics, poverty, illiteracy, unemployment and Al-Shabaab infiltration. The devolution has elevated competition for political leadership due to sharing of county resources and employment along the sub-clans. The study found some respondents attributing Kenya’s military operation in Somalia to reciprocal attacks by Al-Shabaab in the county. The research established that over the years, Somali clan conflicts and hostility have spilled over into North Eastern Kenya, creating security threat and undermining community peace and cohesion. The porous border of Kenya-Somali has made it easy for some sub-clans to communicate with their kinsmen’s counterparts and obtain guns that are readily available in Somalia. The perception of injustices and sense of marginalization amongst the Muslims have provided fertile ground for Al-Shabaab which has diverted attention of security agencies to violent extremism rather than clan conflicts. The study recommends enhancement of inclusive peace committee and collaboration of community with administration and security agencies to tie together peace. There is also a need for openness of politicians to advocate for impartiality, clan conflicts resolution and countering violent extremism through policy framework in the county assembly.

Drivers of Clan Conflicts: A Perspective of the Role of Al-Shabaab in Garissa County, Kenya

The purpose of the study was to investigate the relationship between the drivers of intra-clan-based conflicts and the involvement of external actors that has remained indefinable in Garissa County. The three sub-counties: Garissa Township, Ijara and Fafi were purposively selected for the study because of prolonged and unresolved intra-clan conflicts coupled with militia group of Al-Shabaab attacks over the past years. Qualitative approach was used to seek understanding of drivers of intra-clan conflicts and involvement of violent extremism. The study involves primarily 35 Key Informants drawn from security agencies, Clan elders, Religious leaders and Civil societies across the three sub-counties. The study established that competition over natural resources: water; pasture and land are the main causes of intra-clan conflicts. The respondents attest that intra-clan conflicts have been accelerated by clan identity politics, poverty, illiteracy, unemployment and Al-Shabaab infiltration. The devolution has elevated competition for political leadership due to sharing of county resources and employment along the sub-clans. The study found some respondents attributing Kenya’s military operation in Somalia to reciprocal attacks by Al-Shabaab in the county. The research established that over the years, Somali clan conflicts and hostility have spilled over into North Eastern Kenya, creating security threat and undermining community peace and cohesion. The porous border of Kenya-Somali has made it easy for some sub-clans to communicate with their kinsmen’s counterparts and obtain guns that are readily available in Somalia. The perception of injustices and sense of marginalization amongst the Muslims have provided fertile ground for Al-Shabaab which has diverted attention of security agencies to violent extremism rather than clan conflicts. The study recommends enhancement of inclusive peace committee and collaboration of community with administration and security agencies to tie together peace. There is also a need for openness of politicians to advocate for impartiality, clan conflicts resolution and countering violent extremism through policy framework in the county assembly.

Why educated youth inclined toward extremism: A case of higher education institutes of Pakistan

This article highlights the determinants leading to extremist behavior, i.e. the push and pull factors. The pull factors include: humanitarian causes; radical Islamic ideology; stipulation of a “purpose and mission”; propaganda through media; attraction to martyrdom; and misinterpretation of religious ideas by religious and non-religious extremists. The push factors are local conditions that force people to hold close the violent ideology of radical or extremist Islam. These comprise: local reaction against Americanization/globalization; lack of basic human rights; authoritarian/oppressive political systems; corruption/lack of meritocracy; high youth unemployment; state collapse; and porous borders. To investigate the causes of extremism in higher education institutes, Positivist philosophy (survey method) was adopted. A self-administered structured questionnaire was used to collect data from a sample of educated youth from all over Pakistan, collected via the probability sampling technique. It was revealed that ‘Promotion of Martyrdom’ was highly correlated with extremism, and contributed more than other variables to causing extremism.

“And he adjusted himself to them not falling”, A Reading of Oracle Night

This paper addresses Paul Auster’s Oracle Night (2004) through the lens of storyworld theories. This approach seeks to reveal the transfictional and metaleptic dimensions of the novel while also analyzing recurrent Austerian motifs such as the figure of the writer-investigator, the porous border between fiction and reality, and the mise en abyme of the writing experience itself.

Distribution, use, trade and conservation of Paris polyphylla Sm. in Nepal

BackgroundParis polyphylla Sm. is an important perennial medicinal plant of the Himalayas that is increasingly being used in traditional medicines and pharmaceutical industries. To meet this accelerating demand, people are harvesting it at unsustainable rates and trading it across Nepal through both legal and illegal means. It is therefore imperative to understand the socio-ecological interactions regarding the current distribution, use, trade, and conservation of P. polyphylla, in order to guide its sustainable production in the future. MethodsIn this study, we employed both qualitative and quantitative methodology to collect data from primary and secondary sources. We first carried out extensive field surveys and informal interviews with key stakeholders across 51 of the 77 districts in Nepal. In all we laid 696 quadrats each measuring 1 m × 1 m to understand the prevalence and distribution of P. polyphylla and held discussions in each district to collect information on the use, trade and conservation of P. polyphylla. We also reviewed over 150 studies pertaining to population and use of P. polyphylla, along with 18 years (2000–2017) of trade records of the species. We lastly modeled the species’ potential distribution using a maximum entropy (MaxEnt) with 310 ground control points and 20 predictive variables. ResultsIn this study, we found P. polyphylla growing in all 51 districts, but were only able to find use records from 38 of these districts, and trade records from only 39 districts including 19 border districts. This pattern reveals that the production, collection, use and trade of P. polyphylla vary greatly across the country. Out model predicted a total of 51 mid-hill and mountainous districts as potential distribution areas of P. polyphylla, and this work shows that all of these districts except Surkhet and Mustang may be suitable for its growth in the future.We have found that the high demand for P. polyphylla has driven people to conduct harvests prematurely resulting in habitat degradation. Illegal trade due to weak database management and porous border has also impacted the sustainability of these harvesting practices and made P. polyphylla vulnerable to extinction. To meet the need of market demand and to maintain sustainable production, P. polyphylla should be conserved and cultivated in forests and fringe areas respectively to the extent of its potential distribution and have more stringent sustainable harvesting guidelines applied to its trade.

Current efforts and challenges facing responses to 2019-nCoV in Africa

The novel coronavirus is a pandemic that has started to creep into Africa thus making the virus a truly global, health security threat. The number of new 2019-nCoV cases has been rising in Africa, though currently lower than the cases reported outside the region. African countries have activated their Emergency Operations Centres to coordinate responses and preparedness activities to the pandemic. A series of measures such as restricting travel, case detection and contact tracing, mandatory quarantine, guidance and information to the public among other efforts are being implemented across Africa. However, the presence of porous borders, the double burden of communicable and non-communicable diseases, poverty, poor health literacy, infodemic and family clustering, and most of all, weak health systems, may make containment challenging. It is important for African countries to continue to intensify efforts and address the challenges to effectively respond to the uncertainty the pandemic poses.

Nepal's Response to Contain COVID-19 Infection.

Nepal is a landlocked country bordering two most populous countries, India and China. Nepal shares open border with India from three sides, east, south and west. And, in north with China, where the novel coronavirus infection (CVOVID-19) began in late December 2019. The first confirmed imported case in Nepal was reported in 2nd week of January 2020. The initial response of Nepal to COVID-19 were comparably slow but country geared efforts after it was declared a 'global pandemic' by WHO on 11 March, 2020. Government of Nepal's steps from 18 March, 2020 led to partial lock down and countrywide lockdown imposed on 24 March, 2020. Government devised comprehensive plan on 27 March, 2020 for quarantine for peoples who arrived in Nepal from COVID-19 affected countries. This article covers summary of global status, South Asian Association of Regional Cooperation (SAARC) status, and Nepal's response to contain COVID-19 infection discussed under three headings: Steps taken before and after WHO declared COVID-19 a global pandemic and lab services regarding detection of COVID-19. Nepal has documented five confirmed cases of COVID-19 till the end of March 2020, first in second week of 15 January, 2020 and 2nd case 8-weeks thereafter and 3rd case two days later, 4th on 27 March and 5th on 28 March. Four more cases detected during first week of April. Non-Pharmacological interventions like social distancing and excellent personal habits are widely practiced. Country has to enhance testing and strengthen tracing, isolation and quarantine mechanism and care of COVID-19 patients as Nepal is in risk zone because of comparably weak health system and porous borders with India. The time will tell regarding further outbreak and how it will be tackled. Keywords: COVID-19; lockdown; Nepal; pandemic; response.

Pakistan’s Role in the Social Reconstruction of Afghanistan in the Post 9/11 Era

Afghanistan has been under a state of war for the past few decades. Wars and the ensuing destruction in the region have badly affected the socio-economic and security environment of the country. The situation in Afghanistan has been equally alarming to the neighboring states, particularly for Pakistan which shares its longest porous border with this war torn country. Cognizant to this fact Pakistan not only fully supported the NATO forces to stem the looming threat of Al -Qaeda and Taliban but have also taken serious interest in the social reconstruction of Afghanistan. The primary focus of this paper is to highlight the role of Pakistan with respect to the social reconstruction of Afghanistan. Here the term “social” broadly employs to some important social sectors of Afghanistan such as communication, health, education, and the hosting of Afghan refugees as well as the nurturing of Afghan businessmen in Pakistan and their contribution to the Afghan socio-economic development. The paper at hand argues that Pakistan, due to its geographical proximity and ethnic similarity with Afghan Pashtun can play significant role in the social reconstruction of Afghanistan. Pakistan’s performance in this regard can become more effective if her own security concerns regarding the involvement of hostile countries in Afghanistan are properly addressed by the international community.

Nepal and COVID-19: A strange case and the Dilemma

COVID-19 caused by SARS-CoV-2 started as an outbreak in Wuhan, China in December 2019. Despite strict measures put up by China, its silent but highly contagious nature led to widespread dissemination which made World Health Organization (WHO) declare it as a global pandemic on 11 March 2020. With 152,523 people dying among 2,347,060 affected in 213 countries and territories due to the disease, nations are fighting to “flatten the curve of epidemic.
 The situation in Nepal has been rather strange. Due to its geographical proximity to China and porous borders, WHO quickly declared it a high-risk country for COVID-19, however, only few cases had been reported till date with no record of local transmission (except for one with direct contact) even after testing 8081 samples. It appears as if Nepal has been able to keep the pandemic in early phase for this long!

Exploring Contemporary Security Issues Near Sarawak-Kalimantan Border

Stringent border control is one of the methods to secure national security across the world. Securing the border is essential for both economic and political reasons. In Sarawak, border security is one of the most discussed topics on the social media domain when it comes to state security concerns. Due to the porous Sarawak-Kalimantan border, a worrisome number of illegal activities had been recorded. Throughout the years, cases such as illegal crossings, drug syndicates, kidnapping, auto theft, smuggling, infiltration of illegal immigrants were reported to local authorities. These are among many other cases that highlight the gravity of the security issue near the Sarawak-Kalimantan border. Despite the continuous effort to increase security by Sarawak government through establishments of five new guard posts in Sarawak in 2018, security issues near the borderline is still a great concern. Sarawak is vulnerable not only along its border with Indonesia but also its shore and airspace. This research aims to explore the contemporary security issues near Sarawak-Kalimantan borders and efforts taken by the authorities to minimize security threats along the borderline. Through content analysis of Facebook discourse on security issues in Sarawak and in-depth interviews with eight informants - the findings of this research are hoped to be able to provide more updated data on Sarawak security issues with particular focus on border safety. Keywords: Sarawak, Kalimantan, security issues, border, national security.

The multiplicity of challenges faced by South African borders: A case of Limpopo Province

AbstractContinently, African countries are gradually facing overwhelming tasks of managing their borders in ways that safeguard their national sovereignty, ensures that they are bridges rather than barriers for cross‐border cooperation and regional integration, prevents illegal entries, xenophobic attack and exiting of people and goods while allowing natural movement of goods and people. In this manner, South Africa and other African countries are confronted with different challenges, which impact negatively on the economy and political arena. Therefore, the article aimed at examining the multiplicity of challenges faced by South African borders with specific reference to Limpopo Province. The article has determined the number of aggravating factors towards porous borders which contribute to the multiplicity of challenges, inter alia; an increase in corruption, porous borderlines and weak management systems. A desktop research approach was applied to collects historical materials to validate the arguments that African countries are faced with an epidemic xenophobic attack due to poor maintenance and control of national borders and security system. As a result, the article recommends that the government ought to intensify the visibility of South African Police Services on the borders to help curb crimes and illegal immigrants. The article also recommends effective outsourcing of certain government functions to the private sector, effective use of technology for detections of risks and deployment of skilled, experienced and trustworthy or ethical officials. In conclusion, this article outlines some of the solutions that may be applied to address the porous borders management challenges experienced at the South African borders.

Prisons and custodial settings are part of a comprehensive response to COVID-19

Comment: Prisons are epicentres for infectious diseases because of the higher background prevalence of infection, the higher levels of risk factors for infection, the unavoidable close contact in often overcrowded, poorly ventilated, and unsanitary facilities, and the poor access to health-care services relative to that in community settings. Infections can be transmitted between prisoners, staff and visitors, between prisons through transfers and staff cross-deployment, and to and from the community. As such, prisons and other custodial settings are an integral part of the public health response to coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19).

The Autoimmunity of the EU’s Deadly B/ordering Regime; Overcoming its Paradoxical Paper, Iron and Camp Borders

ABSTRACT In this article we argue that the EU suffers from autoimmunity: a self-harming protection strategy. Drawing on Derrida’s political understanding of autoimmunity, we contend that the root of this malfunction lies in the EU’s own b/ordering and othering policies, which are intended to immunise the foundational ethos of the EU. For this purpose, we dissect the EU border regime into three linked b/ordering mechanisms: the pre-borders of paper documents that regulate from afar the mobility of the people from visa-obliged countries; the actual land borders often consisting of iron gates and fences regulating mobility on the spot; and the post-border in the form of waiting/detention camps that segregate and enclose the undocumented migrants after entry. We make clear how this discriminatory b/ordering and othering regime has led to a recurrent drawing of ever less porous, inhumane and deadlier borders. Such thanatopolitics finds itself at odds with the humanist values that the EU is supposed to uphold, particularly cross-border solidarity, openness, non-discrimination and human rights. We argue that the EU b/ordering regime has turned fear of the non-EUropean into an increasingly unquestioned – even ‘commonsensical’ – anxiety that has become politically profitable to exploit by extreme nationalistic and EUrosceptic parties. The core of the EU’s autoimmunity that we want to expose lies within this irony: in its attempt to protect what it considers meaningful, the EU has unleashed an autoimmune disorder that has turned the EU into its own most formidable threat.

Monitoring adventitious presence of transgenes in brinjal (Solanum melongena L.) collections from the regions in India bordering Bangladesh: a case report

India has been predicted as a center of origin of brinjal (Solanum melongena L.) with large number of wild and weedy relatives distributed across the Indian subcontinent. Fruit and Shoot Borer (FSB) is one of the most devastating insect pests of brinjal causing production losses up to 80%. Bt technology has played a key role in imparting FSB resistance in brinjal. In 2013, Bt brinjal event EE1 was commercialized in Bangladesh. Since the neighbouring country shares porous borders with north-eastern states of India, it is important to check for any unapproved entry of genetically modified (GM) brinjal in India. Adventitious presence of transgenes was monitored in the samples collected from regions of Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Tripura and West Bengal bordering Bangladesh. A total of 211 brinjal samples were collected from 32 locations of selected states. Conventional singleplex and multiplex PCR assays and real time PCR were employed to target the genetic elements of Bt Brinjal viz. cry1Ac transgene, Cauliflower Mosaic Virus 35S promoter (P-35S), neomycin phosphotransferase II (nptII) and aminoglycoside-3′-adenyltransferase (aadA) marker genes. Based on the tests conducted, adventitious presence of transgenes was not detected in any of the collected samples. This approach targeting common screening elements or specific GM target could be efficiently employed to check for unapproved GM events in food and supply chain to comply with the regulatory requirements.

Egyptian National Security and the Perils of Egyptian–Libyan Border Management

In this post-9/11 age, marked by international terrorism, militant non-state actors have created a world of insecurity, challenging international borders by constructing numerous national security issues. These international demarcation lines have been upheld by international conventions and treaties that have been established over the past decades. However, the fluid movement of people and goods, specifically jihadi militants and weapons, through borders in recent years has created both national and transnational security concerns. Nowhere is this problem more relevant than in the Middle East, and more so at the Libyan–Egyptian border. This research paper assesses the current security and policy problems of the Egyptian–Libyan border from Egypt’s national security perspective and the movement of ISIS militants across this border, which inevitably impacts Egypt’s Eastern border in the Sinai Peninsula. The present actions of international assistance of the United Nations and European Union member states are discussed regarding their negotiation initiatives in Libya. Egypt’s alternative approach is discussed, whereby it is taking charge, whether multi- or unilaterally, of the security predicament by effectively policing this porous border. In effect, this paper analyzes Egypt’s insistence on implementing its traditional notions of security, thereby ensuring it remains in a position of power.

Causes of Child Sex Tourism Systematic

The tourism industry beyond all reasonable doubts is not only one of the most rapidly growing industries in the globe but one of the largest employer generating billions of dollars annually. However, in spite of that, the industry according to nascent studies has some profound negative socio-economic, political, cultural and environmental impacts on communities. For instant, tourists engaging children in sex for which they are not ready for both physically, mentally and psychologically has negatively impacted them physically, psychological, mentally, emotionally, economically; and socially. Some have even died. Although the precise number of child sex tourism casualties and their circumstances is not scientifically well researched and documented, what is indisputable is they are in millions. This lack of scholarly documentation, beyond reasonable doubt has posed a great challenge to all concern authorities. Thus, this research was meant to address this gap. The fundamental rationale for the systematic literature review is to examine the present scale and degree of the causes of child sex tourism, share knowledge to spark and inspire processes that will usher rapid growth from all directions in the fight against the menace. A systematic review of the literatures using information collected from different sources was actuated. Google Search Engine was used to search these articles. During the search numeration combinations of words and phrases were used to ensure articles reflect the most recent knowledge and scholarly works. In essence, only peer-reviewed articles published after 2008 were selected except extracts perceived to be of fundamental mileage to the study. However, articles published by staunch international organizations working in the protection of children for years and has produced indefatigable knowledge in commercial sexual exploitation of the children were stealthily appraised. Poverty, which is commonly cited, is not the sole justification for the commercial sexual exploitation of children, even though it contributes to an environment that may sequel to such exploitation. In summation, a range of other complex contributing factors include consumerism, culture, economic disparities, social, political instability, environment, corruption, lack of reporting crimes, lack of and/or inadequate laws, poor enforcement, state lack of interest, debt burden, structural adjustment programmes, the practice of offering women as subservient to men, discriminatory policies, poverty, natural calamities, lack of training, demand and supply, power imbalances, sex trade, families encouragement, philanthropic organizations, internet access, crime and violence, transient workers, freedom of movement, domestic tourists, population expansion, child trafficking, individual, loss of communal farmlands; and porous borders. In conclusion, the causes of child sex tourism can be simply pooled and catalogued into