Pore Size Values Research Articles

Influence of ZnO addition on the structural, in vitro behavior and antimicrobial activity of sol–gel derived CaO–P2O5–SiO2 bioactive glasses

Bone formation, mineralization and bacterial growth control are challenging issues when developing biomedical materials. Mesoporous bioactive glasses (MBGs) in 70SiO2–(26−x) CaO–4P2O5–xZnO (x=0, 3 and 5mol %) were synthesized by a sol–gel method using the non-ionic block copolymer Pluronic P123 as structure directing agent. The IV type nitrogen adsorption/desorption isotherms and pore size values between 3 and 6nm confirmed the mesoporous structure of the synthesized MBGs. For the biological evaluation, the effect of CaO/ZnO substitution on the in vitro bioactivity of the prepared MBGs was studied by immersion in simulated body fluid (SBF) at 37°C for 14 and 28 days, respectively. The consequent formation of the hydroxyl apatite (HA) layer and structural discrepancies of the formed layer were studied by means of appropriate techniques such as: X-ray Diffraction (XRD), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), FT-IR and Raman Spectroscopy. The rate of HA precipitation followed the order 0Zn>3Zn>5Zn. The concentration of Ca, Si, P and Zn ions released from the samples into the SBF was monitored by X-ray fluorescence (XRF). High inhibition rates of 91.3% for Bacillus subtilis and respectively 89.4% for Pseudomonas aeruginosa after 2h of incubation indicate a very good antibacterial activity of the glass with 5% ZnO.

Hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose‐based sponges loaded self‐microemulsifying curcumin: Preparation, characterization, and in vivo oral absorption studies

ABSTRACTNovel hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose (HPMC)‐based sponges containing self‐microemulsifying curcumin (SME‐Cur) were prepared by a freeze drying method using different grades of HPMC (E5 LV, E15 LV, E50 LV, A15 LV, and A4C). The physical properties and drug release from these carriers were characterized and compared among the different formulations. The mean pore size values of the sponges from image analysis ranged from 43.36 ± 4.54 to 123.22 ± 8.19 nm. An increase in the concentration or viscosity of the HPMC, resulted in denser sponges and a slower drug release. The average microemulsion droplet size from the optimal sponge formulation was 34.80 ± 0.1 nm, and the curcumin was almost completely released within 120 min. The AUC after oral administration of the liquid and solid SME‐Cur were 7‐ and 5‐fold greater than that of the curcumin powder in the rabbit, respectively. The results demonstrated that the HPMC‐based sponges loaded with SME‐Cur could be efficiently used to enhance the oral bioavailability and might be useful as they could be administered at a lower dose compared to normal curcumin powder. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2016, 133, 42966.

An investigation of the fractal characteristics of the Upper Ordovician Wufeng Formation shale using nitrogen adsorption analysis

Shales from the Upper Ordovician Wufeng Formation in the southwest of the Sichuan Basin of China were investigated in recent years because of its shale gas potential. In this work, eight shale samples were collected from the Wulong County of Chongqing City in the southwest of the Sichuan Basin of China. The samples' geochemistry and pore structure were studied using XRD (X-ray diffraction) analysis, TOC (total organic carbon) analysis and low-pressure N2 adsorption analysis. Based on the low-pressure N2 adsorption analysis, the fractal characteristics of the pore structure in the shales were investigated using the fractal FHH (Frenkel, Halsey, Hill) equation from N2 adsorption data. The relationships between the specific surface area, the pore volume, the average pore size and the fractal dimension were discussed, and the relationships between the TOC, the mineralogical compositions and the fractal dimension were also discussed. The results indicate that the shales have high TOC contents, varying from 1.326% to 3.52%, and the major mineralogical compositions of the shales are quartz and clay minerals; the quartz contents are between 52.88% and 75.53%, and the clay minerals contents are between 12.74% and 34.58%. The specific surface area is between 7.68 m2/g and 24.76 m2/g, the total pore volume is between 0.04042 cm3/g and 0.07546 cm3/g and the average pore size is in the range of 11.01–21.05 nm. The fractal dimension D obtained by the expression ‘D = 3 + K’ provides a more realistic result than the fractal dimension D obtained by the expression ‘D = 3 + 3K’. The fractal dimension D is between 2.4982 and 2.6359, indicating that the shales investigated have fractal characteristic. The fractal dimension exhibits positive correlations with the contents of TOC and clay minerals, whereas there is negative relationship between the fractal dimension and the quartz contents. The fractal dimension increases with increasing values of the specific surface area and the total pore volume and with decreasing value of the average pore size. The micropores in the WF shales have a stronger impact on the fractal dimension.

Chemical modification of rice husk by quaternized hexadecylpyridinium for removal of chromate oxyanions from aqueous solution

Abstract Rice husk was chemically modified with synthesized hexadecylpyridinium bromide (HDPBr) to enhance Cr(VI) adsorption capacity of the obtained surfactant modified rice husk (HDP + /RH). The structure of as-synthesized HDPBr surfactant was confirmed with 1 H NMR spectroscopy. The interaction between the HDPBr molecules and the RH surface was investigated by X-ray diffraction (XRD), FTIR spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and nitrogen adsorption at −196 °C. HDP + /RH brought about decrease in the values of specific surface area, pore radius, pore size and pore volume compared with those of pure RH, indicating pore narrowing through grafting of HDPBr on the RH surface. The IR spectrum of HDP + /RH exhibited new frequency peaks at 1614, 1490, 1115 and 1043 cm −1 due to vibration of pyridinium ion, fact that is indicative of the successfully anchoring of the surfactant molecules through hydrophobic bonding to the cellulose chains in RH. The adsorption of Cr(VI)-oxyanions onto RH and HDP + /RH was investigated by batch studies at 20 and 50 mg L −1 initial concentration. HDP + /RH was evaluated as an efficient adsorbent for the Cr(IV)-oxyanions than RH, which rapidly attained equilibrium after 45 min compared with the latter at 110 min. This allows evidence for the electrostatic interaction between the Cr(VI)-oxyanions and HDP + -promoted RH. The adsorption data fitted reasonably with the Langmuir and Freundlich models for HDP + /RH, similarly the pseudo-second-order model shows a better fitting. The intraparticle diffusion analysis suggests that adsorption of Cr(VI) ions by HDP + /RH involved intraparticle diffusion which contributed to the rate of the process.

The Filtering Properties Research of Healthy Antibacterial Anti-Fog Silk Mask Fabrics

For the present situation of spotty mask fabrics in current market, the paper used natural fiber silk as raw materials for the study of anti-fog and haze mask fabrics. The paper design five different programs and any one sample in every program has different weft density or warp and weft yarn fabric specifications. Make total of 15 kinds of trial samples and do a series of testing of fabric performance. Through testing the pore size value, the filtration efficiency, resistance value and other indicators and analyzing the results, do research on filtering properties of the fabrics. The conclusions have certain guiding significance in product development.

Development and characterization of tubular composite ceramic membranes using natural alumino-silicates for microfiltration applications

The preparation and characterization of porous tubular ceramic composite microfiltration membranes, using kaolins and calcium carbonates, were reported. The porous gehlenite (2CaO·Al2O3·SiO2) and anorthite (CaO·Al2O3·2SiO2) based ceramics were obtained by a solid state reaction. A ceramic support, sintered at 1250°C, within an average pore size of about 8μm, a porosity of about 47% and a compression strength around 40MPa, was prepared. The microfiltration active top layer was added on the support by a slip casting from clay powder suspensions. The novel microfiltration membrane layer has a thickness of 40μm and an APS value of about 0.2μm. This average pore size value was improved and considerably lower than those reported in the literature (0.5μm). The performance of the novel microfiltration ceramic membrane was determined for evaluating both the water permeability and rejection. This proved the potentiality of the membrane produced in the microfiltration field. Moreover, the good adhesion, between the support and the active microfiltration layer membranes, was also proved. A correlation between microstructures of used powders and physicochemical properties was discussed. Finally, the origin of the unique two powder order membrane depositions was also proposed.

Calculating absolute permeability using nuclear magnetic resonance models

1D transverse relaxation measurements were made on fully cylindrical cores of sandstone sediments with varying values of porosity, pore size and magnetic susceptibility. Porosity calculated from amplitudes of transverse relaxation measurements agrees well with porosity determined by independent method. Transverse relaxation measurements within the homogeneous magnetic field can be used for permeability prediction. In the case of sandstone samples with high porosity, a standard calculation scheme from NMR logging in the oil industry yields good results. However, standard SDR (Schlumberger Doll Research) model based on the T2LM cannot be applied for an accurate permeability prediction for samples with low porosity, small pore sizes, clay filling pores, and presence of iron minerals and associated with high internal magnetic field gradients. Therefore, a model theory was developed physically based on Kozeny-Carman equation, which describes the pore radius dependence of the surface relaxivity ρ as both an analytical and a more practicable empirical equation was applied. Regarding corrected ρ values, permeability can be predicted more accurately from the physically based Kozeny-Carman equation than from the logarithmic mean of the T2 distribution. From the relaxation measurements new empirical models with high coefficient of correlation by MLS regression were derived, additionally the coefficients of SDR and Kozeny were reestimated. The prediction models were applied, and the results compared to absolute permeability results from basic core analysis. As expected, the Kozeny model response presented better match to the core permeability values when compared with the optimized SDR.

Study of thermal properties of mullite porous materials

Green ceramic bodies based on mullite were infiltrated with SiO2 (TEOS precursor) solution using a sol–gel technique and sintered at 1,300 °C. Previously, the green bodies had been prepared with the molding method, using corn flour as the pore-forming agent with a concentration in mass percent of 10, 15, and 20, and then they were sintered. Infiltrated ceramic material was evaluated to determine the relationship between, morphology, porosity, thermal properties, and crystalline characteristics by scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, porosimetry by N2 at 77 K, and thermal analysis using laser flash technique. The presence of SiO2 together with magnesium (talc powder) gives a cordierite crystalline phase, which is considered presenting thermal stability. Infiltration process changes the surface area, which is reduced by 93 %, and the pore size value reaches 1.98 nm, changing from open to closed structure. In spite of porosity change, thermal conductivity increases in the majority of the samples. This phenomenon obeys the complex system involved in the study, such as closed porosity, microstructure, tortuosity, geometry, and the anisotropy of mullite bonds, accompanied by the infiltrant liquid (SiO2).

Impact of redox-active polymer molecular weight on the electrochemical properties and transport across porous separators in nonaqueous solvents.

Enhancing the ionic conductivity across the electrolyte separator in nonaqueous redox flow batteries (NRFBs) is essential for improving their performance and enabling their widespread utilization. Separating redox-active species by size exclusion without greatly impeding the transport of supporting electrolyte is a potentially powerful alternative to the use of poorly performing ion-exchange membranes. However, this strategy has not been explored possibly due to the lack of suitable redox-active species that are easily varied in size, remain highly soluble, and exhibit good electrochemical properties. Here we report the synthesis, electrochemical characterization, and transport properties of redox-active poly(vinylbenzyl ethylviologen) (RAPs) with molecular weights between 21 and 318 kDa. The RAPs reported here show very good solubility (up to at least 2.0 M) in acetonitrile and propylene carbonate. Ultramicroelectrode voltammetry reveals facile electron transfer with E1/2 ∼ -0.7 V vs Ag/Ag(+)(0.1 M) for the viologen 2+/+ reduction at concentrations as high as 1.0 M in acetonitrile. Controlled potential bulk electrolysis indicates that 94-99% of the nominal charge on different RAPs is accessible and that the electrolysis products are stable upon cycling. The dependence of the diffusion coefficient on molecular weight suggests the adequacy of the Stokes-Einstein formalism to describe RAPs. The size-selective transport properties of LiBF4 and RAPs across commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) separators such as Celgard 2400 and Celgard 2325 were tested. COTS porous separators show ca. 70 times higher selectivity for charge balancing ions (Li(+)BF4(-)) compared to high molecular weight RAPs. RAPs rejection across these separators showed a strong dependence on polymer molecular weight as well as the pore size; the rejection increased with both increasing polymer molecular weight and reduction in pore size. Significant rejection was observed even for rpoly/rpore (polymer solvodynamic size relative to pore size) values as low as 0.3. The high concentration attainable (>2.0 M) for RAPs in common nonaqueous battery solvents, their electrochemical and chemical reversibility, and their hindered transport across porous separators make them attractive materials for nonaqueous redox flow batteries based on the enabling concept of size-selectivity.

Pore size analysis from retention of neutral solutes through nanofiltration membranes. The contribution of concentration–polarization

Pore size distribution is one of the most important characteristics of a membrane. This can be obtained from the fitting of pore radius calculated from retention versus flux measurements for a set of solute solutions. In this work a set of non-charged similar molecules is chosen as solutes to minimize other interactions apart of those related to size. The hydrodynamic model will be used to characterize the behavior of the membrane to uncharged solutes, assuming that membrane pores are straight and cylindrical.As is known, the phenomenon of concentration polarization must be taken into account because true retention is not experimentally accessible by concentration measurements. Frequently, the film layer model is applied for the dependence of concentration with experimental conditions; but the application of this model requires prior knowledge of the mass transfer coefficient which is evaluated by different dimensionless correlations (Sherwood correlation). Here we show a review of different alternatives in doing it and analyze their consequences when computing the pore size distribution.Experimental data were obtained from dead-end filtration experiments of a set of four ethylene glycol solutions with a nanofiltration membrane. Obtained results show the importance of the mass transfer model in the pore size value obtained.

Investigation of membrane preparation condition effect on the PSD and porosity of the membranes using a novel image processing technique

ABSTRACTA totally computerized image processing program package is developed to analyze the SEM images of membrane surface and cross‐section. Pore size distribution and porosity of the fabricated membranes are determined using the proposed image processing procedure. Furthermore, effect of coagulation bath temperature on the morphology and mechanical properties (such as tensile strength, strain break, tensile energy absorbent, and tensile stiffness) of Polysulfone (PSf) membranes are investigated. The results reveal that the mechanical properties are higher when N‐methyl‐2‐pyrrolidone (NMP) is used as solvent. Also, an increase in the coagulation bath temperature caused a monotonous increase in the mean pore size value of Dimethylformamide (DMF)‐based membranes. However, mean pore size curve has a maximum when NMP is used as solvent. Also, porosity of the fabricated membranes increased when coagulation bath temperature increased. For the NMP‐base membranes, pore's diameter was in the range of 0–5 μm. However, DMF‐based membranes have pore size value of smaller than 1 μm when the precipitation medium is kept at 8°C. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2014, 131, 39899.

Size effects in KDP-porous glass ferroelectric nanocomposites

An influence of the size effect on the phase transition temperature in potassium dihydrogen phosphate (KDP)-porous glass nanocomposites was studied in this work. Results of the dielectric measurements in a wide temperature range for KDP crystals embedded in porous glasses are presented. The phase transition temperature shift toward higher temperatures was observed for KDP embedded in porous glasses with the mean value of the pore size of 312 and 160 nm, whereas for smaller pore sizes (71 and 23 nm) the phase transition temperature decreased. The phase transition temperature dependence of the mean values of the pores dimensions of KDP-porous glass nanocomposites is the experimental evidence showing the non-monotonical character of the size effect on the phase transition temperature in ferroelectrics particles. It was found that the dielectric permittivity of KDP embedded into the porous glasses with the mean values of pore sizes of 160 nm and 312 nm practically did not depend on frequency, whereas for KDP embedded into the pores with dimensions of 71 nm and 23 nm a dispersion of the dielectric permittivity is observed in both para- and ferro-electric phases.

Application of Artificial Neural Networks and Support Vector Machines for carbonate pores size estimation from 3D seismic data

This paper proposes a method for the prediction of pore size values in hydrocarbon reservoirs using 3D seismic data. To this end, an actual carbonate oil field in the south-western part of Iran was selected. Taking real geological conditions into account, different models of reservoir were constructed for a range of viable pore size values. Seismic surveying was performed next on these models. From seismic response of the models, a large number of seismic attributes were identified as candidates for pore size estimation. Classes of attributes such as energy, instantaneous, and frequency attributes were included amongst others. Applying sensitivity analysis, we determined Instantaneous Amplitude and asymmetry as the two most significant attributes. These were subsequently used in our machine learning algorithms. In particular, we used feedforward artificial neural networks (FNN) and support vector regression machines (SVR) to develop relationships between the known attributes and pore size values in a given setting. The FNN consists of twenty one neurons in a single hidden layer and the SVR method uses a Gaussian radial basis function. Compared with real values from the well data, we observed that SVM performs better than FNN due to its better handling of noise and model complexity.

Protic ionic liquid as additive on lipase immobilization using silica sol–gel

Ionic liquids (ILs) have evolved as a new type of non-aqueous solvents for biocatalysis, mainly due to their unique and tunable physical properties. A number of recent review papers have described a variety of enzymatic reactions conducted in IL solutions, on the other hand, to improve the enzyme's activity and stability in ILs; major methods being explored include the enzyme immobilization (on solid support, sol–gel, etc.), protic ionic liquids used as an additive process. The immobilization of the lipase from Burkholderia cepacia by the sol–gel technique using protic ionic liquids (PIL) as additives to protect against inactivation of the lipase due to release of alcohol and shrinkage of the gel during the sol–gel process was investigated in this study. The influence of various factors such as the length of the alkyl chain of protic ionic liquids (monoethanolamine-based) and a concentration range between 0.5 and 3.0% (w/v) were evaluated. The resulting hydrophobic matrices and immobilized lipases were characterised with regard to specific surface area, adsorption–desorption isotherms, pore volume (Vp) and size (dp) according to nitrogen adsorption and scanning electron microscopy (SEM), physico-chemical properties (thermogravimetric – TG, differential scanning calorimetry – DSC and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy – FTIR) and the potential for ethyl ester and emulsifier production. The total activity yields (Ya) for matrices of immobilized lipase employing protic ionic liquids as additives always resulted in higher values compared with the sample absent the protic ionic liquids, which represents 35-fold increase in recovery of enzymatic activity using the more hydrophobic protic ionic liquids. Compared with arrays of the immobilized biocatalyst without additive, in general, the immobilized biocatalyst in the presence of protic ionic liquids showed increased values of surface area (143–245m2g−1) and pore size (19–38Å). Immobilization with protic ionic liquids also favoured reduced mass loss according to TG curves (always less than 42.9%) when compared to the immobilized matrix without protic ionic liquids (45.1%), except for the sample containing 3.0% protic ionic liquids (46.5%), verified by thermogravimetric analysis. Ionic liquids containing a more hydrophobic alkyl group in the cationic moiety were beneficial for recovery of the activity of the immobilized lipase. The physico-chemical characterization confirmed the presence of the enzyme and its immobilized derivatives obtained in this study by identifying the presence of amino groups, and profiling enthalpy changes of mass loss.

Permeability of Aluminium Foams Produced by Replication Casting

The replication casting process is used for manufacturing open-pore aluminum foams with advanced performances, such as stability and repeatability of foam structure with porosity over 60%. A simple foam structure model based on the interaction between sodium chloride solid particles poorly wetted by melted aluminum, which leads to the formation of air pockets (or “air collars”), is proposed for the permeability of porous material. The equation for the minimum pore radius of replicated aluminum foam is derived. According to the proposed model, the main assumption of the permeability model consists in a concentration of flow resistance in a circular aperture of radius rmin. The permeability of aluminum open-pore foams is measured using transformer oil as the fluid, changing the fractions of initial sodium chloride. Measured values of minimum pore size are close to theoretically predicted ones regardless of the particle shape. The expression for the permeability of replicated aluminum foam derived on the basis of the “bottleneck” model of porous media agrees well with the experimental data. The obtained data can be applied for commercial filter cells and pneumatic silencers.

Critical role of small micropores in high CO2 uptake

Microporous carbon materials with extremely small pore size are prepared by employing polyaniline as a carbon precursor and KOH as an activating agent. CO(2) sorption performance of the materials is systematically investigated at the temperatures of 0, 25 and 75 °C. The prepared carbons show very high CO(2) uptake of up to 1.86 and 1.39 mmol g(-1) under 1 bar, 75 °C and 0.15 bar, 25 °C, respectively. These values are amongst the highest CO(2) capture amounts of the known carbon materials. The relation between CO(2) uptake and pore size at different temperatures is studied. An interesting and innovative point that the micropores with pore size smaller than a critical value play a crucial role in CO(2) adsorption at different temperatures is demonstrated. It is found that the higher the sorption temperature is, the smaller this critical value of pore size is. Pores smaller than 0.54 nm are manifested to determine CO(2) capture capacity at high sorption temperature, e.g. 75 °C. This research proposes a basic principle for designing highly efficient CO(2) carbon adsorbents; that is, the adsorbents should be primarily rich in extremely small micropores.

Pore size distribution of micelle-templated silicas studied by thermoporosimetry using water and n-heptane

Thermoporosimetry, i.e., DSC measurements of melting point depression of water and heptane confined in mesopores, has been used for determination the pore size distribution of several mesoporous silicas synthesized with the use of micelle templates. Porosity of these materials was additionally characterized by low-temperature nitrogen adsorption and quasi-equilibrated thermodesorption of nonane. The pore size distributions obtained using the water thermoporosimetry were similar to those determined using the other methods, but the pore size values found for the narrow pore materials were underestimated by ca 1 nm. Too large pore sizes obtained for the wide pore silica from heptane thermoporosimetry were attributed to nonlinear dependence of the melting point depression on the reciprocal of the pore size.

Hydroxyapatite/ovalbumin composite particles as model protein carriers for bone tissue engineering: I. Synthesis and characterization

Hydroxyapatite (HAp) nanoparticles were synthesized from the co-precipitation reaction between calcium oxide from discarded egg shells and phosphoric acid in the absence and the presence of ovalbumin (OVA). 2-Amino-2-hydroxymethyl-propane-1,3-diol (tris-base) was used to control the pH during the co-precipitation (i.e., 7–9). The formation of HAp was confirmed by X-ray diffraction analysis, while both the Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy and the thermogravimetric analysis confirmed the existence of OVA within the HAp–OVA particles. The crystallite sizes of the individual crystalline entities within the HAp and the HAp–OVA particles were approximated from the (002) reflection peaks by means of the Scherrer's equation. The average particle sizes of the HAp and the HAp–OVA particles were measured by particle size analysis. Transmission electron microscopy revealed that these particles were aggregates of rod-like HAp nanocrystals, whereas scanning electron microscopy revealed that these particles ultimately formed into larger aggregates. Lastly, the decrease in the pH during the precipitation process and the presence of OVA were responsible for the observed increase in the values of pore size, BET specific surface area, and pore volume of the resulting HAp particles.

Efficient Sc triflate mesoporous-based catalysts for the synthesis of 4,4′-methylenedianiline from aniline and 4-aminobenzylalcohol

Sc triflate mesoporous-based catalysts have been prepared using a two-step strategy (i.e., Atrane method) based on the formation of the hierarchic bimodal porosity in the first step and the formation of Sc triflate complexes at the materials surface in the second step. All solids were analyzed by EPMA, surface area, and pore size values, XRD, TEM, FTIR, and 45Sc NMR static spectra. The catalysts have been investigated in the synthesis of 4,4′-methylenedianiline (4,4′-MDA) from aniline and 4-aminobenzylalcohol. 4,4′-MDA was obtained with selectivities over 85.0% for a conversion of aniline of 31%, at 80°C and after 24h. Using microwaves, selectivities of 90% in 4,4′-MDA were reached in only 3h. Important key parameters influencing the catalytic performances seem to be the scandium content and the nature of the formed Sc species. By replacing formaldehyde with 4-aminobenzylalcohol, the necessity of additional steps for neutralization and separation of the wastes can be eliminated.

Size evolution and surface characterization of solid-state nanopores in different aqueous solutions

The stability and surface evolution of solid-state nanopores in aqueous solutions are extremely important since they would get immersed in solutions during DNA translocation experiment for DNA analyses. In this work, we systematically studied the size evolution of SiN nanopores in ethanol, deionized water and potassium chloride (KCl) solutions by careful surface characterization and composition analyses using a transmission electron microscope. Surprisingly, we found that nanopores closed up completely in ethanol in an hour and showed a 30% and 20% size decrease in deionized water and KCl solutions, respectively. Strong evidence of surface oxidation was found by composition analyses in the nanopore area. Nanopore size evolution was strongly dependent on initial pore size and solution pH value. In pH = 13 KCl solution, SiN nanopores were observed to increase in size instead of decrease. The results not only provide useful information for DNA detection based on solid-state nanopores, but can also guide design and application of other nanodevices exposed to electrolyte-solvent systems such as cell-on-a-chip devices and biosensors.