Porcine Kidney Diamine Oxidase Research Articles

Discovery of a sensitive, selective, and tightly binding fluorogenic substrate of bovine plasma amine oxidase.

We report a novel fluorogenic substrate of bovine plasma amine oxidase (BPAO), namely, (2-(6-(aminomethyl)naphthalen-2-yloxy)ethyl)trimethylammonium (ANETA), which displays extremely tight binding to BPAO (K(m) 183 +/- 14 nM) and yet is metabolized fairly quickly (k(cat) 0.690 +/- 0.010 s(-1)), with the aldehyde turnover product (2-(6-formylnaphthalen-2-yloxy)ethyl)trimethylammonium serving as a real time reporting fluorophore of the enzyme activity. This allowed for the development of a fluorometric noncoupled assay that is 2 orders of magnitude more sensitive than the spectrophotometric benzylamine assay. The discovery of ANETA involved elaboration of the lead compound 6-methoxy-2-naphthalenemethaneamine by structure-based design, which recognized the ancillary cation binding site of BPAO as the most significant structural features controlling binding affinity. Structure-based design further ensured a high level of selectivity: ANETA is a good substrate of BPAO but is not a substrate of either porcine kidney diamine oxidase (pkDAO) or rat liver monoamine oxidase (MAO-B). ANETA represents the first highly sensitive, selective, and tight binding fluorogenic substrate of a copper amine oxidase that is able to respond directly to the enzyme activity in real time.

N-Linked oligosaccharide structures in the diamine oxidase from porcine kidney

Structures of the N-linked glycans released from porcine kidney diamine oxidase (DAO) were characterized utilizing various analytical techniques, including matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI/TOF-MS), high-performance capillary electrophoresis (HPCE), and high-pH anion-exchange chromatography with pulsed amperometric detection (HPAEC-PAD). The oligosaccharide sequences present in DAO were conclusively determined using specific exoglycosidases in conjunction with MALDI/TOF-MS. The structures found in the glycoprotein are primarily linear, di-, or tribranched fucosylated complex type. MS analysis of the esterified N-glycan pool derived from DAO indicated the presence of several di- and trisialylated structures.

Identification of the quinone cofactor in mammalian semicarbazide-sensitive amine oxidase.

Mammalian semicarbazide-sensitive amine oxidase (SSAO) enzymes have been classified as EC 1.4.3.6 [amine:oxygen oxidoreductase (deaminating)(copper-containing)]. However, both the identity of the quinone cofactor and the presence of copper remain unconfirmed, and SSAO has proved impossible to purify to homogeneity in sufficient yield to permit cofactor identification. To circumvent this problem, we have partially purified SSAO enzymes from bovine and porcine aortae and have established, with a redox-cycling assay, that no other quinoproteins were present in enzyme preparations. Enzymes were then derivatized with (p-nitrophenyl)hydrazine (p-NPH), which forms a covalent yellow complex with the quinone cofactor. Visible absorbance spectra of derivatized bovine and porcine enzymes (respective lambdamax values 456 and 476 nm at neutral pH, shifting to 580 and 584 nm in 2 M KOH) were consistent with the presence of (2,4,5-trihydroxyphenyl)alanine quinone (TPQ) as cofactor. Resonance Raman spectra were essentially identical to that for pea seedling amine oxidase, a known TPQ-containing enzyme. Extensive digestion of SSAO enzymes, and of porcine kidney diamine oxidase, with pronase E yielded species with identical chromophoric properties characteristic of the dipeptide, TPQ(p-NPH)-Asp. Thermolytic digestion of porcine SSAO gave two cofactor-containing peptides that contained a TPQ consensus sequence, Asn-X-Asp-Tyr-Tyr, where X is a blank cycle corresponding to TPQ. N-terminal sequencing of whole enzymes revealed a membrane-spanning region typical of an extracellular type II glycoprotein. These results confirm the presence of TPQ in mammalian membrane-bound SSAO ectoenzymes.

Enzyme catalysed oxidation of nazlinin and nazlinin derivatives. Characterisation of the reaction products

Porcine Kidney Diamine Oxidase (PKDO) was used to catalyse the oxidative transformation of Nitraria alkaloids. Nazlinin yielded indoloquinolizidine 4, an alkaloid which has been obtained as a natural product from Nitraria plant extracts. Oxidative deamination of 1-(4-butylamino)-β-carboline 10 with PKDO yielded an unstable aldehyde ( 11), which cyclised to a new, arborescidine-type azepine ( 12). Addition of alcohol dehydrogenase during the oxidative deamination reduced the aldehyde in situ to the corresponding alcohol 13. Topaquinone-analogue 9 was effective as a stoichiometric oxidant for these primary amines. Characterisation of the enzyme reaction products was done by comparison with the chemically synthesised compounds.

Mechanism-based inactivation of porcine kidney diamine oxidase by 1,4-diamino-2-butene

Cis- and trans-1,4-diamino-2-butene are substrates and potent inactivators of porcine kidney diamine oxidase. Evidence from absorption and NMR spectra indicates that both are oxidized to pyrrole. Both substrates are irreversible mechanism-based inactivators of the enzyme, although the trans isomer is more potent and results in complete inactivation in a reaction which follows pseudo-first-order kinetics with an apparent K i of 0.34 mM and a second-order inactivation constant of 500 M −1 s −1. Under the same conditions, 46% of the activity remains when the enzyme is reacted with cis-1,4-diamino-2-butene. Trans-4-amino-2-butenal, the product of oxidation of the trans diamine, has been synthesized and shown to undergo cyclization to pyrrole in a concentration-dependent manner, approaching second-order at low concentrations. Trans-4-amino-2-butena is itself a potent irreversible inhibitor with IC 50 of 2.5 μM. We propose that the irreversible inactivation by both cis- and trans1,4-diamino-2-butene involves attack by a protein-based nucleophilic residue on the unsaturated aminoenal products of the enzymatic reactions, resulting in a covalent adduct. Cyclization of the cis-aminoenal to pyrrole is much more rapid than in the trans case, thus it is less available for inhibitory reaction with the protein.

Cyanide Inhibition of Porcine Kidney Diamine Oxidase and Bovine Plasma Amine Oxidase: Evidence for Multiple Interaction Sites

The interactions of cyanide and phenylhydrazine with porcine kidney diamine oxidase (PKDAO) and bovine plasma amine oxidase (BPAO) (EC 1.4.3.6) have been investigated. Cyanide displays mixed noncompetitive inhibition against amine substrates and also against O2. EPR spectroscopy shows that cyanide binds to an equatorial site on Cu(II) and can be displaced by chloride, which is not an inhibitor, without recovery of activity, indicating that Cu(II)-bound cyanide is not inhibitory. 14CN− studies have shown that one cyanide in PKDAO and two in BPAO are covalently and irreversibly bound per enzyme dimer at an unknown site, even under conditions where cyanide is not bound to Cu(II). These cyanides have no effect on activity or on binding of phenylhydrazine to the enzymes. Cyanide also binds reversibly to the organic cofactor in both enzymes, presumably as a cyanohydrin, leading to the observed mixed noncompetitive inhibition against substrate. In both enzymes, two phenylhydrazines react per enzyme dimer. The kinetics of phenylhydrazine titration are affected by cyanide, which indicates that phenylhydrazine and cyanide react at the same carbonyl group in the enzymes. The results suggest that inhibition of amine oxidases by cyanide is through a carbonyl reagent and a Cu(I) ligand rather than through a Cu(II) ligand.

Primary structures for a mammalian cellular and serum copper amine oxidase

The 6-hydroxydopa quinone-containing active site peptide from bovine serum amine oxidase has been found to be highly homologous to a segment of a cloned human kidney amiloride-binding protein (Barbry, P., Champe, M., Chassande, O., Munemitsu, S., Champigny, G., Lingueglia, E., Maes, P., Frelin, C., Tartar, A., Ullrich, A., and Lazdunski, M. (1990) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 87, 7347-7351). Additionally, a second 38-residue tryptic peptide (peptide XI) isolated from bovine serum amine oxidase shows 82% identity with a portion near the carboxyl terminus of the human kidney amiloride-binding protein. When an extended active site peptide was isolated from porcine kidney diamine oxidase (Janes, S. M., Palcic, M. M., Scaman, C. H., Smith, A. J., Brown, D. E., Dooley, D. M., Mure, M., and Klinman, J. P. (1992) Biochemistry 31, 12147-12154), it was found to be fully contained in the human kidney amiloride-binding protein. Examination of amiloride binding to bovine serum amine oxidase and porcine kidney diamine oxidase reveals dissociation constants of 196 and 9.1 microM, respectively. Taken together, these findings indicate that the cDNA isolated for human kidney amiloride-binding protein encodes a human kidney diamine oxidase. Two oligonucleotides, based on the tryptic peptide XI and active-site peptide of bovine serum amine oxidase, were used to amplify a portion of cDNA from a commercial bovine liver cDNA library through the use of the polymerase chain reaction. A full-length clone (2.7 kilobase pairs) for bovine serum amine oxidase was subsequently obtained through screening of the same cDNA library with the amplified 0.7-kilobase pair cDNA. These studies provide the first primary sequences for a mammalian cellular and serum copper amine oxidase. Computer alignment of amine oxidase cDNA-derived protein sequences reveals three conserved histidine residues, which are likely to be ligands to copper.

Hydroxyl radical production in the reactions of copper-containing amine oxidases with substrates

Solutions of porcine kidney diamine oxidase, PKDAO, and bovine plasma amine oxidase, BPAO, were saturated with the spin-trapping agent α-phenyl- N- t-butylnitrone, PBN, and incubated with cadaverine or benzylamine substrate, respectively, under aerobic conditions. EPR spectra due to trapped hydroxyl radicals were obtained for both enzymes with no evidence of superoxide formation. Under anaerobic conditions, hydroxyl radicals were formed only when H 2O 2 was present as well as substrate. Catalase prevented hydroxyl radical formation by PKDAO but not BPAO. The results indicate that hydroxyl radical is produced in the reaction of the product H 2O 2 with the reduced enzymes and therefore may be important in turnover-related enzyme degradation, but is not a true reaction intermediate.

4',6-diamidino 2-phenylindole is a new reversible inhibitor of diamine oxidase and S-adenosyl- l-methionine decarboxylase from mammalian tissues

1. 4',6-Diamidino-2-phenylindole is a powerful reversible inhibitor of porcine kidney diamine oxidase and partially purified rabbit liver S- adenosyl- L-methionine decarboxylase. 2. This diamidine has shown to be a competitive inhibitor of porcine kidney diamine oxidase with a Ki value of 13μM. 3. A similar inhibitory pattern has been found on rat liver S- adenosyl- L-methionine decarboxylase with an estimated Ki of 21 μM.

Aromatic diamidines are reversible inhibitors of porcine kidney diamine oxidase

The inhibitory ability of aromatic diamidines has been studied on porcine kidney diamine oxidase. The reversibility of drug-protein interactions has been tested by means of exhaustive dialysis experiments, showing in all cases a reversible binding pattern. K i values obtained by means of Lineweaver-Burk plots were: stilbamidine 12 μM, 2-OH-stilbamide 8.5 μM, phenamidine 4 μM, propamidine 8 μM, dibromopropamidine 4.9 μM and amicarbalide 12 μM.

Purification and partial characterization of mammalian Cu-dependent amine oxidases.

Bovine serum amine oxidase, porcine kidney diamine oxidase and human placental and pregnancy serum diamine oxidases have been purified by affinity chromatography and ion exchange chromatography. The purified enzymes were subjected to peptide mapping studies with trypsin, S. aureus V8 protease and pepsin. These studies revealed similarities between the enzymes and partial sequences from the bovine serum amine oxidase were obtained. The sequences obtained showed no homology to known sequences. Immunological studies using monoclonal antibodies to the purified enzymes revealed cross reactivity between the four enzymes. These results support the view that the Cu-dependent amine oxidases constitute a closely related group (E.C. 1.4.3.6).

The copper of porcine kidney diamine oxidase.

The copper of porcine kidney diamine oxidase.

The mechanism of inhibition by cyanide in porcine kidney diamine oxidase.

The mechanism of inhibition by cyanide in porcine kidney diamine oxidase.

Stereochemical trends in copper amine oxidase reactions.

Copper amine oxidases (EC 1.4.3.6) exhibit atypical stereochemical patterns in the reactions they catalyze. Dopamine and tyramine are oxidized with abstraction of the pro-R hydrogen by the porcine plasma amine oxidase, the pro-S hydrogen by pea seedling amine oxidase and a net nonstereospecific proton abstraction by the bovine plasma enzyme. This provides the first example in which a reaction catalyzed by enzymes in the same formal class occurs by all three possible stereochemical routes. To assess the underlying mechanistic significance of this heterogeneity, we have established the stereochemical course of the oxidation of tyramine by five additional copper amine oxidases using 1H NMR spectroscopy. Reactions catalyzed by rabbit and sheep serum amine oxidases are nonstereospecific. These enzymes exhibit rare mirror image binding with differential flux through two opposite and stereospecific reaction pathways. Differential primary kinetic isotope effects are observed for each mode, 8 and 4.6 for pro-S abstraction and 2.6 and 2.7 for pro-R abstraction by the sheep and rabbit amine oxidases, respectively. Tyramine oxidations catalyzed by the soybean and chick pea amine oxidases and porcine kidney diamine oxidase, however, are all stereospecific, occurring with loss of the pro-S hydrogen at C-1. Solvent exchange profiles are consistent within each stereochemical class of enzyme; the pro-R and nonstereospecific enzymes exchange solvent into C-2 of product aldehydes, the pro-S enzymes do not.

Determination of PQQ in quinoproteins with covalently bound cofactor and in PQQ-derivatives

Application of the so-called hexanol extraction procedure for PQQ determination, originally based on detachment of the cofactor from quinoproteins and conversion into PQQ-5,5-dihexyl ketal, leads in several cases to a number of products due to uncontrollable esterification. The present modified procedure, detaching the covalently bound cofactor and converting it into 4-hydroxy-5-hexoxy-pyrroloquinoline, was tested on a number of proteins. Only the expected product was obtained for the known quinoproteins, in a quantitative yield, as revealed by comparison with the values determined with the hydrazine method. Thus this independent method confirmed that bovine serum amine oxidase, porcine kidney diamine oxidase, dopamine β-hydroxylase from bovine adrenal medulla, methylamine dehydrogenase from Thiobacillus inversutus, glutamate decarboxylase from Escherichia coli, and 3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine decarboxylase from pig kidney are really quinoproteins. Quantitative conversion was also achieved for condensation and addition products of PQQ (PQQ-acetone, PQQH 2, PQQ-oxazole, PQQ-dinitrophenylhydrazone, and PQQ-tryptophan). In view of this conversion and the fact that catalytic activity of PQQ is not required, the method seems suited to investigate the distribution of the cofactor in eukaryotes, especially in mammals where it is almost certain that PQQ occurs only in derivatized form. Finally, just like the hydrazine method, the hexanol extraction procedure seems unable to keep the structure of the cofactor as it exists in the active site, intact, as demonstrated for the pro-PQQ cofactor of methylamine dehydrogenase.

Primary structure of a pyrroloquinoline quinone (PQQ) containing peptide isolated from porcine kidney diamine oxidase

After treating porcine kidney diamine oxidase (PKDAO, EC 1.4.3.6.) with the inhibitor 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine (DNPH), the enzyme was subjected to proteolysis with trypsine. The hydrolysate contained a peptide to which the C(5) hydrazone of PQQ and DNPH (PQQ-DNPH) was bound. The peptide was purified to homogeneity after which the amino acid sequence was determined. It appeared to consist of 11 amino acids, with PQQ bound to number eight. Further proteolysis of the peptide with aminopeptidase and carboxypeptidase gave a compound which was identical to a product prepared from coupling of PQQ-DNPH to lysine. Therefore, the cofactor in PKDAO has most probably an amide bond between one of its carboxylic acid groups with the ε-NH 2 group of a lysine residue. Possibilities for attachment of the cofactor to the protein chain are discussed.

The amplefied detection of free and bound methoxatin (PQQ) with nitroblue tetrazolium redox reactions: Insights into the PQQ-locus

Porcine kidney diamine oxidase, a PQQ-enzyme, can be directly measured by tormazan production with putrescine and nitroblue tetrazolium. This cyclic reaction in air is unaffected by superoxide dismutase, suggesting a two electron transfer between substrate-reduced PQQ-locus and nitroblue tetrazolium, without intermediate formation of superoxide. With albumin-bound PQQ and detergent-exposed PQQ-loci, glycine can be oxidized by PQQ and electrons repetitively transferred through PQQ-sites to nitroblue tetrazolium, the rate of formazan production detecting picomoles of exposed PQQ-locus. Exposed PQQ-loci are also reducible with NaCNBH 3. Nitroblue tetrazolium, reoxidizes the reduced PQQ-locus with formazan production. These experiments suggest that the PQQ-locus of quinoproteins contains a [ketone-ketoimine/a3ketoamine] redox center.

Fusion-mediated microinjection of active amine and diamine oxidases into cultured cells: effect on protein and DNA synthesis in chick embryo fibroblasts and in glioma cells.

Serum amine oxidase and/or porcine kidney diamine oxidase were trapped within reconstituted Sendai virus envelopes, and retained their activity. The trapped enzymes that were detected by radioimmunoblots were microinjected into cultured cells by fusion. When diamine oxidase was microinjected into cultured fibroblasts of chick or rat embryos, a temporary arrest in protein and DNA synthesis was observed. The inhibitory effect was more significant when both serum amine oxidase and kidney diamine oxidase were microinjected into those cultured cells. Fibroblasts of either chick or rat embryos transformed by Rous sarcoma virus were more susceptible to the injected enzymes than the normal cultures, showing a complete arrest in protein and DNA synthesis within 4 hours. Similar results were obtained by microinjecting diamine oxidase into cultured glioma cells. The injected enzyme catalyzed the oxidation of intracellular polyamines. The resulting oxidation product (hydrogen peroxide and aminoaldehydes) apparently caused the arrest in the synthesis of macromolecules.

Hydrazone formation of 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine with pyrroloquinoline quinone in porcine kidney diamine oxidase

Homogeneous diamine oxidase (EC 1.4.3.6) from porcine kidney was treated with the inhibitor 2,4-dinitro-phenylhydrazine (DNPH). The coloured compounds formed were detached with pronase and purified to homogeneity. When the reaction with DNPH was conducted under an O 2 atmosphere, the product (obtained in a yield of 55%) was the C(5)-hydrazone of pyrroloquinoline quinone (PQQ) and DNPH, as revealed by its Chromatographie behaviour, absorption spectrum and 1H-NMR spectrum. Only 6% of this hydrazone was formed under air, the main product isolated being an unidentified reaction product of DNPH with the enzyme. Porcine kidney diamine oxidase is the second mammalian enzyme shown to have PQQ as its prosthetic group. In view of the requirements for hydrazone formation with DNPH, it is incorrect to assume that inhibition of this type of enzymes with common hydrazines is simply due to blocking of the carbonyl group of its cofactor.

Allylamine cardiotoxicity—IV: Metabolism to acrolein by cardiovascular tissues

Acrolein was detected in homogenates of rat aorta, lung, skeletal muscle, and heart incubated with allylamine. Semicarbazide and hydralazine, which protect against allylamine-induced myocardial injury in vivo in the rat, inhibited acrolein formation. Hydrogen peroxide, a product of oxidative deamination, was generated during allylamine oxidation. Acrolein was also produced from allylamine by bovine plasma amine oxidase and porcine kidney diamine oxidase but not by rat liver or brain homogenates. Allylamine competitively inhibited benzylamine oxidation in rat aorta, but pargyline- sensitive monoamine oxidase was not involved in acrolein production. The high activity in aorta, the competition with benzylamine, and the sensitivity to benzylamine oxidase inhibitors indicate that benzylamine oxidase is the active enzyme in oxidizing allylamine. The formation of acrolein may be the basis of the cardiotoxic action of allylamine.