Porcelain Tiles Research Articles

Correlation analysis of composition, microstructure, and final properties of porcelain tiles: an experimental study

Abstract This study deals with the intricate relationship between composition, microstructure and the final properties of porcelain tiles namely bulk density, water absorption, thermal expansion coefficient, strength, and Young's modulus. In order to achieve this, a comprehensive set of 16 experimental trials were carried out, involving the preparation of eight distinct formulations characterized by varying Seger values and ratios which were subsequently subjected to sintering at two distinct firing temperatures. The analysis was conducted through a comprehensive correlation matrix, revealing significant relationships between composition, phase content and the final properties. The glassy phase emerges as a key contributor, positively influencing bulk density, reducing water absorption and linear shrinkage, and enhancing Young's modulus. The coefficient of thermal expansion correlates positively with residual quartz and inversely with mullite content, highlighting their impact on this property. Strength is positively correlated with mullite content, while quartz, albite, and anorthite phases exhibit negative correlations due to their intricate influence on the overall microstructure. These findings provide essential insights into the complex interplay between composition, microstructure and properties, contributing to the advancement of materials engineering for tailored porcelain tiles.

Tribological Analysis of Surface Textures in Porcelain Tiles for Enhancing Pedestrian Walkway Safety

Due to their durability and aesthetic appeal, porcelain tiles have become a staple in modern construction and interior design. However, the persistent challenge of mitigating slip hazards, particularly in moist conditions, remains a critical concern for pedestrian safety. This study investigates the slip resistance performance of porcelain tiles, focusing on the influence of varying surface textures. The study clarifies the intricate relationship between surface texture and slip resistance through comprehensive dynamic friction tests involving four distinct porcelain tile samples and three different shoe samples conducted under arid, damp, and lathered conditions. While dry conditions showcase robust traction, moist environments underscore the significance of surface textures in enhancing grip. Moreover, the study introduces an operational scale of surface roughness, delineating optimal texture boundaries for maximal slip resistance. The implications of these findings extend beyond mere material characterisation, offering actionable insights for architects, designers, and safety professionals to enhance pedestrian safety in diverse settings. By bridging the gap between material science and real-world safety concerns, this research paves the way for innovative porcelain tile designs that prioritise safety without compromising aesthetic appeal.

Multi-functional ceramic glazes with nano ZnO/Cu–ZnO incorporation

The study successfully enabled the creation of ceramic surfaces with multi functionalities, including superhydrophilicity, self-cleaning, antibacterial properties, and photocatalytic activity, by applying a glaze composition rich in nano ZnO/Cu–ZnO and utilizing surface chemistry and unique texturing on porcelain tiles. The tiles, coated with unique glaze compositions, were fired in an industrial furnace and heat treated. The crystalline phases and surface morphology of glazed surfaces were systematically evaluated using XRD, SEM, FT-IR, drop shape analyzer, and surface roughness profilometer. Key-factors affecting the wettability, self-clean ability, photocatalytic activity and antibacterial efficacy were discussed. Adding nano Cu into the glaze mixture that is rich in ZnO improves the evolution of zincite crystals, increases the specific surface energy, decreases surface roughness, provide superhydrophilicity and promotes the antibacterial effectiveness and photocatalytic activity. Superhydrophilic surfaces doped with nano Cu–ZnO display antibacterial characteristics that do not require UV or visible light. The quick achievement of complete self-cleaning, up to 100 %, is due to the presence of nano Cu particles in its structure. Hydrophilicity has the ability to improve the efficiency of photocatalysis. If a surface exhibits superhydrophilic properties, it shows exceptional photocatalytic performance. A surface that is solely photohydrophilic may not maintain self-cleaning. Hydrophilicity may be more important than photocatalysis in the self-cleaning effect.

Gaseous ozone inactivation of Bacillus atrophaeus spores on ceramic and porcelain tiles

In this study, we investigated the ozone inactivation efficiency of Bacillus atrophaeus spores attached to various tile surfaces. Eight different types of tiles were employed, considering factors such as porosity (ceramic, porcelain), color (white, black), and glossiness (matte, glossy). Inactivation was performed by exposing the spore-loaded tiles to ozone gas for a specified duration. The inactivation efficiencies of ozone gas on different tile surfaces were compared by analyzing the colony-forming units of desorbed Bacillus atrophaeus cultured in a growth medium. Results revealed a reduction in colony counts with increasing ozone exposure time, indicating a proportional enhancement in inactivation effectiveness on ozone exposure time. After exposure to ozone gas for 30 min or longer, more than 90% of spores on each tile were inactivated. Regarding porosity, ceramic tiles exhibited slightly superior inactivation effects compared to porcelain tiles. Additionally, in terms of glossiness, glossy tiles demonstrated better inactivation effects than matte tiles. However, no significant differences were observed in inactivation effects based on the color of the tiles.

Evaluating pumice as a sustainable raw material in porcelain tile production: impact on technical properties

AbstractPumice, a porous rock resulting from the rapid cooling of tuff fragments during volcanic activity, exhibits a spongy texture and light color due to its low density. Found predominantly in Central Anatolia and Eastern Anatolia, it has drawn interest for industrial applications. This study delved into utilizing micronized pumice within the porcelain tile manufacturing process. Comparative analyses were conducted between formulations incorporating micronized pumice and the standard ceramic tile recipe. In place of feldspar, micronized pumice was introduced at concentrations of 3%, 5%, and 7%, while clay was substituted with micronized pumice at concentrations of 3%, 5%, 7%, and 10% by weight. The prepared bodies were fired in an industrial kiln at 1210 °C for 54 min, and various physical and mechanical properties were evaluated. These included viscosity, sieve residue, green strength pre-firing, firing shrinkage, water absorption, firing strength, and firing color after-firing. The results indicated that the samples incorporating micronized pumice closely matched the physical and mechanical properties of the standard porcelain tile. Phase and microstructural analyses revealed the presence of mullite and quartz phases. Notably, micronized pumice demonstrated promise as a substitute for clay or feldspar, with the optimal usage rate determined to be 7% in the porcelain tile recipe. This indicates that pumice has the potential to be an alternative raw material in the production of porcelain tiles.

Innovative ceramic pigments from recycled lithium-ion battery cathodes for inkjet applications

The booming of the electric mobility together with the need of storing renewable energies have increased the demand of lithium-ion batteries which will bring about increasing amounts of electronic waste. Besides, the need for alternative sources of certain raw materials considered critical has changed the perception of determined wastes, which are no longer considered residues but sources of raw materials. In this work, the active cathode material present in end-of-life lithium-ion batteries (Ni, Co, and Mn) was used as secondary raw material, after being properly separated, in the synthesis of a cobalt iron nickel manganese chromium black spinel ((Co, Fe, Ni, Mn) (Fe,Cr)2O4). The pigment was used in the formulation of a ceramic inkjet ink which was deposited over a single-fired porous tile and porcelain tile. Texture and brightness of the ink were not affected by the use of this waste, thus presenting excellent prospects for the industrial ceramic application.

Foundry by-products: Alternative materials for ceramic tiles. Technical, radiological and environmental assessment

The aim of this study is to assess the feasibility of using foundry by-products in porcelain tiles. This feasibility has been evaluated by three different perspectives: technical, radiological and environmental. Firstly, given that the main impurities in foundry by-products are carbon and organic compounds, thermal treatments that successfully reduce carbon and organic compounds have been evaluated. Subsequently, both calcined and uncalcined by-products have been characterised from a technological and radiological point of view and finally, porcelain tile compositions with both calcined and uncalcined by-products have been obtained. These compositions were fully characterised and their performance in the manufacturing process has been evaluated. The environmental impacts of this recycling process were also assessed by means of a life cycle assessment. The results confirm that foundry by-products can partially replace sand in porcelain tile bodies.

Enhancing thermal properties and surface quality of lappato glazed porcelain tiles through milling time optimization

Increasing the surface quality of porcelain tiles, preferred in public, commercial, and living centers, where human density is high, is one of the crucial goals. Surface applications can be applied on the tiles produced as glazed and unglazed tiles in different versions. In lappato glazed tiles, staining-resistance is of great importance besides glossy-surface and wear-resistance. In this study, technical properties such as staining, chemical agent-resistance, color-parameters, thermal-behavior (heat microscopy), roughness, abrasion resistance, and microstructure of glazes (SEM/EDS) depending on the optimizing grinding time were examined with compared to standard lappato-glaze under the industrial conditions. It was observed that with the increase of the glaze grinding, the whiteness value and the increasing smoothness, and higher staining chemicals resistance and the glaze which has lower characteristic temperatures than the standard. As the surface roughness decreased due to grinding, the number and size of pores in the microstructure decreased. The glassy phase exhibited homogeneous distribution due to the dissolution of anorthite crystals.

Pyroplastic deformation analysis of Brazilian porcelain tile formulations using mixture design

AbstractPyroplastic deformation is still an important defect caused during firing in the manufacture of porcelain tiles when there is no control over the raw materials used in the formulation of ceramic tiles. The present study used mixing design as a tool in the development of pastes formulations for Brazilian porcelain tile manufacturing in order to reduce their pyroplastic deformation. Ceramic industry in Brazil has typical and complex way to set up porcelain tile formulations, using regularly more than a dozen raw materials. Therefore, the originality in this work was understanding the formulation by means of a pseudocomponent‐based approach (multiminerals triaxial diagram) and defining parameters that minimize that problem. Eleven different raw materials, supplied by Brazilian ceramic manufacturer, were used and characterized according to their physical–chemical properties. Later, raw materials were divided into three chemical categories and through a simplex‐centroid mixture design, defining the maximum limit of feldspar in 70%, 10 formulations in the experimental region were defined. All formulations were analyzed for particle size distribution, bulk density (postpressing and postburning), mechanical strength (postpressing and postfiring), thermal shrinkage, water absorption, and pyroplastic deformation. Thus, formulations that presented the most admissible behavior in the manufacture of porcelain tiles were selected, and tests were carried out for chemical, mineralogical, thermal (differential scanning calorimeter [DSC]/thermogravimetric [TG]), thermal expansion, porosity analysis, and optical fleximeter (pyroplasticity). All results were analyzed using response surfaces with data obtained by analysis of variance (ANOVA). Mixture design method proved to be a valuable tool to observe the behavior of raw materials and to optimization of Brazilian porcelain tile formulations.

Alternative material recommendation for facade cladding: High silica-containing stonepaste ceramics

This study investigated the potential of using stonepaste ceramics, which were widely preferred as a coating and decoration material on the facades of architectural buildings in ancient times and continues to be produced on a workshop scale today as a cladding material on building facades. Stonepaste ceramics, made from a mixture prepared with a high amount of crystalline quartz as well as frit, plastic clay, and bentonite raw materials, were hand-shaped and sintered at 930 °C after glazing. The physico-mechanical properties of stonepaste ceramics, their behaviour under various environmental conditions (resistance to chemicals, frost, and thermal shock), and their microstructures have been characterized. The characterization results were compared with the properties of commonly used facade cladding materials. It was determined that stonepaste ceramics had a very low firing shrinkage value (2.84 %) compared to that of other ceramic cladding materials, a higher water absorption value (11.79 %) than that of porcelain tiles and floor tiles, and close to wall tiles, and a flexural strength value (33.64MPa) higher than wall tiles and close to porcelain tiles despite the high-water absorption value. Ten cycles of thermal shock resistance showed that the body and glaze layer of the stonepaste ceramic material are well bonded to each other, and there is no significant thermal expansion mismatch between them. One hundred cycles of freeze-thaw conditions indicated that the stonepaste ceramic had good adhesion and thermal expansion compatibility between the glaze and the body but only chipping damage under the action of tensile forces caused by the freezing of water entering the pores of the body. In terms of behaviour against various chemicals, stonepaste ceramics were found to be highly resistant to high and low concentrations of household chemicals, swimming pool salts, and alkalis but less resistant to low concentrations of HCl and citric acid and high concentrations of HCl and lactic acid compared to other chemicals. The results show that stonepaste ceramics, despite their high-water absorption potential, have properties close to those of traditional ceramic tiles and, like these materials, can serve for significant periods in various environmental conditions when used as facade cladding. Consequently, it has been revealed that stonepaste ceramics can be used as a facade cladding material in sustainable, long-lasting, contemporary architectural facades thanks to their technical and protective properties.

Effect of Clay as Additive Element in Recycling Waste Porcelain and Sintering Temperature

Porcelain tile production has been consistently growing worldwide at an approximate rate of 300 million m2/year. This implies that there is an increasing demand for porcelain raw materials. The industry's commercial success was due to the constant and continuous increase in both technical and aesthetic performance. Due to the complex nature of its raw materials, vigorous firing process and processing approach, porcelain represent the most intricate ceramic system. This paper studied effect of sintering temperature using recycled porcelain and clay as additive in the production of porcelain on physical and mechanical properties of the new product. Waste porcelain was treated with HCl acid, dried in an oven to remove the moisture content and sieve with 50µm aperture. Clay was added to the treated porcelain powder at 0%, 2%, 4%, 6%, 8% and 10% mixed with a ball mill machine, dry pressed into pallet at 91 MP and sintered at 1100 °C, 1150 °C and 1200 °C for 2 hours soaking time. Physical and mechanical properties such as volume shrinkage, mass loss, bulk density, water absorption and compressive strength as well as microstructural analysis were determined. At a sintering temperature of 1200 °C and clay composition of 2%, the maximum value of compressive strength was 863.15 MPa, indicating the overall maximum. Furthermore, at this composition, the value of the mass loss, shrinkage, bulk density and water absorption of porcelain waste with clay addition was 5.93%, 64%, 2.53% and 6.09%, respectively.

Chemical and mineralogical characterization to define parameters for comminution, aiming at granulometric adequacy in rock rich in feldspars extracted in Pedra Lavrada-PB

The demand for high purity feldspars with low contaminant content, especially for use in the manufacture of porcelain tiles and white crockery, poses a challenge for processing the ore. Due to the need for very low iron levels, less than 0.15%, operations must be more complex, costly and capable of providing a high purity final product. To this end, it is necessary to employ mineralogical and technological characterization to understand the ore and plan the operations of the processing plant. A sample of rock rich in feldspars collected in an extraction in the municipality of Pedra Lavrada/PB was studied, aiming to identify the chemical composition and release spectrum using XRD and SEM techniques. Aliquots were subjected to preparation, granulometric classification and high-intensity wet magnetic separation steps. The results indicate that the rock has high concentrations of feldspars, quartz and a significant content of magnetite and hornblende. The physical release of magnetic mineral phases occurs below 0.104mm, and fragmentation operations must be designed with this grain size standard in mind. Magnetic separation, with mass recovery of 14.01% in relation to the feed, satisfactorily guaranteed a reduction in the concentration of magnetic minerals in the ore

Study of thermal shock and chemical durability of a porcelain formulated from local raw materials from Burkina Faso

This work evaluates the resistance to chemical attack and thermal shock of porcelain formulated from local raw materials from Burkina Faso for their validation in real use. A kaolinitic clay, a pegmatite and sand were used for the formulation of porcelain tiles. Some samples were shaped by casting into porous molds and sintered at a temperature of 1240 °C. The average heating rate is 10 °C/min up to the final given temperature. These porcelains were immersed to a depth of 25 mm in test solutions and kept closed at 20 °C for 12 days. Six concentrations of test solutions were prepared to perform these tests: ammonium chloride (100 g/L); hydrochloric acid (3% and 18% by volume); lactic acid (5% by volume); citric acid (100 g/L) and alkali KOH (30 g/L and 100 g/L). The test showed that these porcelains are resistant to chemical attacks with insignificant mass variations ranging from −0.030 to 0.053 wt%. The results of the thermal shock test show that formulated porcelains are resistant to the brutal variation of temperature. The results obtained qualify the porcelains for industrial and real use.

Sterilization efficacy of a homemade UV lamp system on ceramic and porcelain tiles.

Ultraviolet (UV) sterilization of Bacillus atrophaeus spores attached to eight types of tiles, consisting of combinations of ceramic and porcelain, white and black, and matte and glossy surfaces, was investigated using a homemade UV lamp system with different irradiation times (10 s, 30 s, and 60 s) and UV lamp-to-tile distances (32 mm, 76 mm, and 120 mm). The results demonstrated a reduction in colony numbers with increasing irradiation time and decreasing lamp-to-tile distance, with nearly complete sterilization observed for a 120 mm lamp-to-tile distance with 60 s UV irradiation and for a 32 mm lamp-to-tile distance with 10 s UV irradiation. Specifically, superior UV sterilization efficacy was observed on porcelain compared to ceramic tiles, on white compared to black tiles, and on matte compared to glossy tiles, consistent with the reflectance trend. In conclusion, among the tested tile surfaces, the white matte porcelain tile exhibited the most efficient UV sterilization, attributed to its highest UV reflectance.

Study of the chemical tempering process in industrial porcelain tiles aiming to enhance mechanical properties and reduce thickness

Resumo Este trabalho estuda o incremento da resistência mecânica à flexão e força de ruptura de porcelanatos através da têmpera química. A troca catiônica resulta em tensões residuais de compressão na superfície do material. Foram selecionados porcelanatos técnicos (60×60 cm) com 100%, 90% e 77% da espessura padrão. Os porcelanatos foram prensados, secos e sinterizados em forno industrial. O processo de têmpera química foi realizado com uma mistura de sais de composição correspondente a 27% de nitrato de potássio (KNO3 > 99%) e 73% de fertilizante (K2O ~ 43%). O tratamento químico foi realizado a 480 ºC durante 25 min. Os resultados mostraram que as propriedades mecânicas do material atenderam à norma vigente (ABNT 10545-4 2018). Mesmo o material com 77% da espessura padrão, obteve-se um aumento de 15% na tensão de ruptura e 16% na força de ruptura. A análise de Weibull comprovou que as propriedades mecânicas foram incrementadas após a têmpera química.

Optimizing raw material composition to increase sustainability in porcelain tile production: A simulation‐based approach

AbstractReducing the environmental impact of porcelain tile production while maintaining cost‐effectiveness is challenging. This work introduced a novel modeling approach for optimizing a standard composition range comprising kaolinite (15–38 wt.%), illite (0–20 wt.%), quartz (20–40 wt.%), and feldspar (20–45 wt.%) to establish a robust composition interval for porcelain stoneware tiles. The proposed study considers several factors, such as composition impact on the manufacturing sequence, production costs, and CO2 emission. A flowsheet simulation database was generated by coupling the Dyssol framework with MATLAB. This study investigated the influence of raw material composition within the process sequence, the total CO2 emissions, and production costs within the contexts of Spain and Brazil, two of the top five global producers. Granules with a higher proportion of talc and illite exhibit reduced moisture content after spray drying, and these combinations have lower green body porosity after compaction. The addition of talc allowed for decreased porosity content after compaction reduced firing temperature, and lowered costs and CO2 emissions despite the higher prices associated with talc. The proposed simulation methodology offers a powerful decision‐making tool for optimizing raw material composition to minimize cost and CO2 emissions in the porcelain tile production. This methodology represents an early stride toward integrating digital twin methodologies within the ceramic tile sector, facilitating improved process regulation, and promoting the adoption of digital technologies.

Statistical analysis of porcelain tiles’ technical properties: full factorial design investigation on oxide ratios and temperature

This study focuses on optimizing the composition and firing temperature of porcelain tiles using statistical analysis techniques. A full factorial design, including model adequacy checking, analysis of variance, Pareto charts, interaction plots, regression model, and response optimizer is employed. The key factors were the Seger ratios of SiO2/Al2O3, Na2O/K2O, MgO/CaO, and firing temperature. The response variables investigated were bulk density, water absorption, linear shrinkage, coefficient of thermal expansion (at 500 °C), and strength. The statistical analysis revealed highly significant results, which were further validated, confirming their reliability for practical use in the production of porcelain tiles. The study demonstrated the effectiveness of utilizing Seger formulas and properties of typical raw materials to accurately predict the final properties of ceramic tiles. By employing SiO2/Al2O3 = 5.2, Na2O/K2O = 1.50, MgO/CaO = 3.0, and firing temperature of 1180 °C, optimized properties, such as maximum strength, maximum bulk density, and minimum water absorption, was achieved with a composite desirability of 0.9821.

Optimization of physical and mechanical properties of porcelain tiles from coffee parchment husk ash

Coffee parchment husk ash (CPHA), a product from coffee processing was found to have similar fluxing oxides as are found in feldspars. CPHA is produced in large quantities through the combustion of coffee parchment in industries to produce energy for drying purposes. CPHA is commonly disposed of in landfills and open fields, causing pollution to the environment and ecosystems. In this work, response surface methodology (RSM) was used for optimization of porcelain tile bodies in which the portion of CPHA in feldspar was varied from 10 to 90 wt% and firing temperature from 800 to 1200 ℃. The response variables were linear shrinkage (LS), water absorption (WA), and flexural strength (FS). Other materials in the porcelain were maintained at 10 wt% sand, 20 wt% ball clay, and 40 wt% kaolin. Mixed proportions were dry pressed at 40 MPa and fired to respective peak temperatures at a rate of 34 ℃/min. The optimum conditions obtained were 10% of CPHA in feldspar and 1197 ℃ firing temperature. Validation experiments presented LS 8.15%, WA 0.11%, and FS 38.32 MPa. These values agree with optimum responses from RSM and therefore confirm the accuracy of developed prediction models. The test values lie within the range specified by 1SO 13006:2018 for porcelain floor tiles. These findings demonstrate that CPHA can be used as a raw material for production of porcelain floor tiles. Adoption of CPHA in ceramic production can contribute to reduction in the costs of maintaining landfills.

Joint polarization detection and degradation mechanisms for underwater image enhancement.

Light absorption and scattering exist in the underwater environment, which can lead to blurring, reduced brightness, and color distortion in underwater images. Polarized images have the advantages of eliminating underwater scattering interference, enhancing contrast, and detecting material information of the object in underwater detection. In this paper, from the perspective of polarization imaging, different concentrations (0.15g/ml, 0.30g/ml, and 0.50g/ml), different wave bands (red, green, and blue), different materials (copper, wood, high-density PVC, aluminum, cloth, foam, cloth sheet, low-density PVC, rubber, and porcelain tile), and different depths (10cm, 20cm, 30cm, and 40cm) are set up in a chamber for the experimental environment. By combining the degradation mechanism of underwater images and the analysis of polarization detection results, it is proved that the degree of polarization images have greater advantages than degree of linear polarization images, degree of circular polarization images, S1, S2, and S3 images, and visible images underwater. Finally, a fusion algorithm of underwater visible images and polarization images based on compressed sensing is proposed to enhance underwater degraded images. To improve the quality of fused images, we introduce orthogonal matching pursuit (OMP) in the high-frequency part to improve image sparsity and consistency detection in the low-frequency part to improve the image mutation phenomenon. The fusion results show that the peak SNR values of the fusion result maps using OMP in this paper are improved by 32.19% and 22.14% on average over those using backpropagation and subspace pursuit methods. With different materials and concentrations, the underwater image enhancement algorithm proposed in this paper improves information entropy, average gradient, and standard deviation by 7.76%, 18.12%, and 40.8%, respectively, on average over previous algorithms. The image NIQE value shows that the image quality obtained by this paper's algorithm is improved by about 69.26% over the original S0 image.

Comparison between Mullite-Based and Anorthite-Based Porcelain Tiles: A Review

This paper begins with an introduction to porcelain tiles. A review of the major scientific and technological features of mullite-based porcelain tiles (MPTs) and anorthite-based porcelain tiles (APTs), focusing primarily on the raw material, processing, phase evolution and mechanical behavior, is then presented. Based on the porcelain tile firing behavior and a series of physical and chemical changes that can occur, a comprehensive comparison is described. In the last part, the prospects for further developments related to MPTs and APTs are discussed.