Pika Populations Research Articles

Variation in Habitat Characteristics of American Pikas along an Elevation Gradient at Their Northern Range Margin

Temperature is an important environmental variable in shaping the distribution of species. The American pika (Ochotona princeps) has been identified as a climate-change-sensitive species as documented by the extirpation of a number of populations at the southern end of the species' range. Limited tolerance to warm temperatures has previously been reported, yet recent evidence suggests that pikas are able to live outside of cool habitats with the discovery of warmer, low-elevation pika populations, such as those found in the Bella Coola Valley in British Columbia. Here we characterize the temperatures experienced by pikas living along an elevation gradient at the northern end of their distribution. Additionally, we recorded temperatures both above and below the talus at one of our sites and the relationship between pika activity and temperature. Temperatures differed along the elevation gradient by up to 6 °C from low- to high-elevation sites. Below-talus temperatures were lower than above-talus temperatures at noon and during the afternoon, and were warmer than above temperatures in the morning and night, suggesting that talus has insulative properties that guard against extreme temperatures. Lastly, a negative relationship was observed between temperature and pika activity. We show that although at the northern end of pika distribution, ambient temperatures 1.5 m above the talus surface often exceeded the threshold for acute heat stress. Our results also suggest that behavioral thermoregulation or other adaptations may enable pikas to inhabit low-elevation habitat that was previously thought as inhospitable to pikas.

The effects of management on population dynamics of plateau pika

The plateau pika (Ochotona curzoniae) inhabits the Qinghai/Tibetan Plateau of China. Its role on the grassland ecosystem is not quite understood. Some researchers regard it as a keystone species while others treat it as a pest. At least, the overabundance of plateau pika population accelerates degrading of alpine meadows mainly through their burrowing activity. Therefore, it is necessary to manage pika population. The commonly employed management strategies are lethal control, contraceptive control, and vegetation restoration. To study the control effect, we develop a cellular automata model. In the simulation, we consider three time manners (single control, impulsive control at fixed times and state-dependent impulsive control) and two space manners (uniform control and mosaic control). Not surprisingly, a better control effect can be achieved with a larger killing rate in lethal control, or a larger contraception rate, or a larger degree in grassland restoration. On the other hand, uniform control has distinctly better results than mosaic control. Hence, in practice, uniform control is strongly recommended. With uniform control, some results are summarized as follows. In both lethal control and contraceptive control, the best strategy is to apply state-dependent impulsive control; if control is implemented in the non-growing season then the implementation time makes no difference. However, if control is implemented in the breeding season of pika, in lethal control, the later it is implemented the better is the control effect; while in contraceptive control, the earlier it is implemented the better is the control effect. Compared with lethal control, non-disseminating contraceptive control has a better control result if only one control is implemented; but if controls are implemented too often then lethal control has a better control effect.

Genetic Evidence for Restricted Dispersal along Continuous Altitudinal Gradients in a Climate Change-Sensitive Mammal: The American Pika

When faced with rapidly changing environments, wildlife species are left to adapt, disperse or disappear. Consequently, there is value in investigating the connectivity of populations of species inhabiting different environments in order to evaluate dispersal as a potential strategy for persistence in the face of climate change. Here, we begin to investigate the processes that shape genetic variation within American pika populations from the northern periphery of their range, the central Coast Mountains of British Columbia, Canada. At these latitudes, pikas inhabit sharp elevation gradients ranging from sea level to 1500 m, providing an excellent system for studying the effects of local environmental conditions on pika population genetic structure and gene flow. We found low levels of neutral genetic variation compared to previous studies from more southerly latitudes, consistent with the relatively recent post-glacial colonization of the study location. Moreover, significant levels of inbreeding and marked genetic structure were detected within and among sites. Although low levels of recent gene flow were revealed among elevations within a transect, potentially admixed individuals and first generation migrants were identified using discriminant analysis of principal components between populations separated by less than five kilometers at the same elevations. There was no evidence for historical population decline, yet there was signal for recent demographic contractions, possibly resulting from environmental stochasticity. Correlative analyses revealed an association between patterns of genetic variation and annual heat-to-moisture ratio, mean annual precipitation, precipitation as snow and mean maximum summer temperature. Changes in climatic regimes forecasted for the region may thus potentially increase the rate of population extirpation by further reducing dispersal between sites. Consequently, American pika may have to rely on local adaptations or phenotypic plasticity in order to survive predicted climate changes, although additional studies are required to investigate the evolutionary potential of this climate change sensitive species.

Effects of quinestrol and levonorgestrel on populations of plateau pikas, Ochotona curzoniae, in the Qinghai‐Tibetan Plateau

Plateau pikas (Ochotona curzoniae, Hodgson, 1858) are viewed as a pest in the Tibetan Plateau meadow ecosystem when their population densities are high. Traditional culling using rodenticides often poses a high risk to non-target species and even to humans. In this study, an investigation was made of the infertility effects of quinestrol (E), levonorgestrel (P) and a combination of the two (EP, ratio E:P = 1:2) on plateau pikas during 2007 and 2008. Treatment with E or EP significantly decreased the pregnancy rate of female pikas in 2007. In 2008, there was a cross-year effect that still suppressed male reproduction in treated groups. Treatment with E obviously reduced the reproduction of pikas but not their population abundance in 2007; the reduction in population size was significant in 2008. Single baiting of quinestrol in early breeding season reduced the reproduction and population size of pikas throughout 2007. The effect of infertility lasted into the next breeding season through a cross-year effect, which resulted in a significant reduction of population size in 2008. Quinestrol is a very promising non-lethal approach to managing pika populations; however, several factors need to be investigated further to improve the practicality of this method.

Influence of Domestic Livestock Grazing on American Pika (Ochotona princeps) Haypiling behavior in the Eastern Sierra Nevada and Great Basin

In a pilot study, I observed a relationship between domestic livestock grazing and location of American pika (Ochotona princeps) haypiles in the eastern Sierra Nevada and several Great Basin mountain ranges. Where vegetation communities adjacent to talus bases (forefields) were grazed, mean distance from the talus borders to the closest fresh hay - piles was 30.1 m (SD = 18.9 m, n = 27), and haypiles were found only high in the talus. In ungrazed forefields, mean distance was 1.8 m (SD = 0.9 m, n = 57), and haypiles were found along the low-elevation talus-vegetation border. Where grazing was active, haypiles consistently contained vegetation gathered from plants growing within the talus. Talus vegetation appeared to be of lower diversity and the plant species of lower nutritional value than forefield plants. This difference, if real, would compromise quality of forage for summer browsing and winter haypile storage. This con- dition, combined with potentially less favorable summer and winter thermal conditions of upper talus locations relative to lower talus borders, suggests that grazing might be a factor compromising population conditions and status of pikas. Recent studies have reported higher extirpation rates of pika populations in Great Basin ranges (primarily in Nevada) than in adjacent regions. Because domestic livestock grazing is widely permitted on public lands throughout pika habitat in the Great Basin but not permitted (or much more restricted) in pika habitat of the Sierra Nevada, California, grazing effects might be contributing to observed regional differences in viability of pikas.

USING A CELLULAR-AUTOMATA MODEL TO INVESTIGATE THE EFFECTS OF GRAZING ON PLATEAU PIKA POPULATION DYNAMICS

The plateau pika is a keystone species of Qinghai–Tibet plateau, but its overabundance aggravates the degradation of alpine meadow. Grazing is the most convenient manner to utilize alpine meadow. Grazing would change vegetation condition, that is, change the habitat of plateau pika and so lead to variation of plateau pika population. Based on ecological characteristics of plateau pika and alpine meadow, a cellular-automata model is established to investigate the influence of grazing on dynamics of plateau pika population. Vegetation shortens with the increase of grazing intensity. When grazing intensity is light, the height of vegetation under summer grazing, continuous grazing, rotational grazing and winter grazing decrease in turn. The ACC (average carrying capacity of plateau pika) is higher on degraded meadow and is lower on undegraded meadow. On undegraded meadow grazing affects the value of ACC, whereas, on degraded meadow grazing has slight effect on it. On undegraded meadow, plateau pika occupies all cells speedly, the amount of damaged cells and the average amount of live holes in occupied cells decrease or hold the line on temporal dimension. On degraded meadow, the dispersal of plateau pika is restrained, the amount of damaged cells and the average amount of live holes in occupied cells increase on temporal dimension.

Fecal Pellets of American Pikas (Ochotona princeps) Provide a Crude Chronometer for Dating Patch Occupancy

ABSTRACT. American pikas (Ochotona princeps) seem to be especially vulnerable to climate change, with recent extinctions of pika populations being attributed to global warming. Incomplete historical location records are currently used to examine changes in pika distributions. A method of determining recent pika distributions in the absence of historical records is needed. Here I report on changes over time of known-age pika fecal pellets up to 36 years old. Predictable changes in diameter, internal consistency, and color of pellets provide a method to approximate the dates of last occupation in patches where pikas have been extirpated.

Effectiveness of 10 polymorphic microsatellite markers for parentage and pedigree analysis in plateau pika (Ochotona curzoniae)

BackgroundThe plateau pika (Ochotona curzoniae) is an underground-dwelling mammal, native to the Tibetan plateau of China. A set of 10 polymorphic microsatellite loci has been developed earlier. Its reliability for parentage assignment has been tested in a plateau pika population. Two family groups with a known pedigree were used to validate the power of this set of markers.ResultsThe error in parentage assignment using a combination of these 10 loci was very low as indicated by their power of discrimination (0.803 - 0.932), power of exclusion (0.351 - 0.887), and an effectiveness of the combined probability of exclusion in parentage assignment of 99.999%.ConclusionAll the offspring of a family could be assigned to their biological mother; and their father or relatives could also be identified. This set of markers therefore provides a powerful and efficient tool for parentage assignment and other population analyses in the plateau pika.

Distribution and Climatic Relationships of the American Pika (Ochotona princeps) in the Sierra Nevada and Western Great Basin, U.S.A.; Periglacial Landforms as Refugia in Warming Climates

We used a rapid assessment to survey American pika (Ochotona princeps) populations and documented 420 pika site occurrences in southwestern U.S.A. These included 329 sites from the Sierra Nevada (SN), California; 67 from six southwestern Great Basin (swGB) ranges, California and Nevada; 16 from three central Great Basin ranges, Nevada; and 8 from the central Oregon Cascades. Of these, 67% were currently occupied, 27% modern (indirectly scored active), and 6% old. Sites were grouped into 148 demes, 88 regions, and 11 mountain ranges. Current elevations ranged from 1645 m (1827 m excluding Oregon) to 3887 m, extending the lower elevational range of the species at the study latitude. Sites were distributed on all slope aspects with a preference for north to easterly aspects, and without preference for substrate. Rock-ice-feature (RIF) till, notably rock-glacier and boulder-stream landforms, accounted for 83% of the sites. Climatic relationships from the PRISM model for the SN and swGB sites showed wide tolerance, with average precipitation 910 mm, average minimum temperature −3.9 °C, and average maximum temperature 8.7 °C. Average minimum temperatures for old sites were not significantly different from recent sites, whereas average maximum temperatures were significantly higher in old sites. Unusual features of RIF landforms make them important refugia for pikas as climates warm. In contrast to studies that document species vulnerability elsewhere, pikas in the SN and swGB appear to be thriving and tolerating a wide range of thermal environments.

Isolation and introgression in the Intermountain West: contrasting gene genealogies reveal the complex biogeographic history of the American pika (Ochotona princeps)

AbstractAim We studied the history of colonization, diversification and introgression among major phylogroups in the American pika,Ochotona princeps(Lagomorpha), using comparative and statistical phylogeographic methods. Our goal was to understand how Pleistocene climatic fluctuations have shaped the distribution of diversity at mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) and nuclear DNA (nDNA) loci in this alpine specialist.Location North America’s Intermountain West.Methods We accumulated mtDNA sequence data (c. 560–1700 bp) from 232 pikas representing 64 localities, and sequenced two nuclear introns (mast cell growth factor,c. 550 bp,n = 148; protein kinase C iota,c. 660 bp,n = 139) from a subset of individuals. To determine the distribution of major mtDNA lineages, we conducted a phylogenetic analysis on the mtDNA sequence data, and we calculated divergence times among the lineages using a Bayesian Markov chain Monte Carlo approach. Relationships among nuclear alleles were explored with minimum spanning networks. Finally, we conducted coalescent simulations of alternative models of population history to test for congruence between nDNA and mtDNA responses to Pleistocene glacial cycles.Results We found that: (1) all individuals could be assigned to one of five allopatric mtDNA lineages; (2) lineages are associated with separate mountain provinces; (3) lineages originated from at least two rounds of differentiation; (4) nDNA and mtDNA markers exhibited overall phylogeographic congruence; and (5) introgression among phylogroups has occurred at nuclear loci since their initial isolation.Main conclusions Pika populations associated with different mountain systems have followed separate but not completely independent evolutionary trajectories through multiple glacial cycles. Range expansion associated with climate cooling (i.e. glaciations) promoted genetic admixture among populations within mountain ranges. It also permitted periodic contact and introgression between phylogroups associated with different mountain systems, the record of which is retained at nDNA but not mtDNA loci. Evidence for different histories at nuclear and mtDNA loci (i.e. periodic introgression versus deep isolation, respectively) emphasizes the importance of multilocus perspectives for reconstructing complete population histories.

WHEN COLD IS BETTER: CLIMATE-DRIVEN ELEVATION SHIFTS YIELD COMPLEX PATTERNS OF DIVERSIFICATION AND DEMOGRAPHY IN AN ALPINE SPECIALIST (AMERICAN PIKA,OCHOTONA PRINCEPS)

The genetic consequences of climate-driven range fluctuation during the Pleistocene have been well studied for temperate species, but cold-adapted (e.g., alpine, arctic) species that may have responded uniquely to past climatic events have received less attention. In particular, we have no a priori expectation for long-term evolutionary consequences of elevation shifts into and out of sky islands by species adapted to alpine habitats. Here, we examined the influence of elevation shifts on genetic differentiation and historical demography in an alpine specialist, the American pika (Ochotona princeps). Pika populations are divided into five genetic lineages that evolved in association with separate mountain systems, rather than lineages that reflect individual sky islands. This suggests a role for glacial-period elevation shifts in promoting gene flow among high-elevation populations and maintaining regional cohesion of genetic lineages. We detected a signature of recent demographic decline in all lineages, consistent with the expectation that Holocene climate warming has driven range retraction in southern lineages, but unexpected for northern populations that presumably represent postglacial expansion. An ecological niche model of past and future pika distributions highlights the influence of climate on species range and indicates that the distribution of genetic diversity may change dramatically with continued climate warming.

Variation in pika (Ochotona collaris, O. princeps) vocalizations within and between populations

Understanding geographic call variation can resolve evolutionary and behavioural questions, yet the factors influencing divergent acoustic signals remain poorly understood in mammals. We explored call variation between collared pikas in Yukon and Alaska and American pikas in Alberta, and between individuals within a population of collared pikas. Classification trees were used to determine the extent of call divergence between populations and the elements of calls driving these differences. Pika populations had significant differences in call structure, and individual pikas were classified to their correct populations with up to 94% accuracy. To investigate possible mechanisms responsible for interspecific variability, we tested the acoustic adaptation hypothesis by using a playback experiment to explore whether American and collared pika calls transmit with less degradation across their own species' habitat than the habitat of their congener. We found no support for the acoustic adaptation hypothesis. Geographic call variation in these two species of pikas likely reflects genetic divergence, and may be a result of separate evolutionary histories. We calculated the potential for individual coding for both time and frequency measurements of calls. High frequency harmonics showed greater between‐ than within‐individual variation, and may act as sources of information regarding individual identity.

American Pikas Inhabit Low-Elevation Sites Outside the Species' Previously Described Bioclimatic Envelope

ABSTRACT. It has been suggested that Nearctic pikas (Ochotona spp.) are good biogeographic indicators of regions containing rocky, mesic, and cool habitat characterized by long winters and short summers. I examined whether populations of pikas inhabiting distinct low-elevation locales (121–255 m) are faithfully restricted to long-winter and short-summer conditions by monitoring the climate associated with American pikas (Ochotona princeps) in the southern part of the Columbia River Gorge, Oregon. Ambient air temperatures and weather conditions in the vicinity of 4 pika-occupied rockslides were monitored with remote temperature loggers and weather stations from June 2000 to June 2001. Temperatures were compared to long-term averages recorded within the area. I detected pikas inhabiting locales where some temperatures lie outside of the limiting climatic values previously calculated for regions containing pikas. Mild winter temperatures at these pika locations show that long-winter temperatures and snow acc...

American Pikas (Ochotona princeps) in Northwestern Nevada: A Newly Discovered Population at a Low-elevation Site

The central tenet of island biogeography theory—that species assemblages on islands are functions of island area, isolation from mainlands, and vicariance—has been altered by the demonstrable effects that rapid climate change is imposing on insular faunas, at least in isolated mountaintops. Although populations of American pikas (Ochotona princeps) continue to suffer extirpations, and although the lower bounds of the pika's elevational distribution are shifting upslope across the Great Basin, we report here on the new discovery of a low-elevation population of pikas in a mountain range from which they had not been reported previously. This discovery, particularly in the context of relatively rapid ecological change, highlights the importance of seeking out original sources of information and performing spatially extensive fieldwork. Results presented here further illustrate that although thermal influences appear to be the single strongest determinant of pika distribution currently, such influences interact with a number of other factors to determine persistence.

ARE PIKAS EXPOSED TO AND AFFECTED BY SELENIUM DEFICIENCY?

Regional extirpations of pikas (Ochatona princeps) within the last few decades have been attributed to global warming. Other recent global alterations such as increased nitrogen (N) deposition and associated selenium (Se) deficiency may further stress pika populations. In 2003 and 2004, we live-trapped pikas from three populations in Wyoming and measured Se values in their hair. We also sampled hair and liver from museum specimens collected throughout the Northern Rocky Mountains in 1987 and 1988. Our results suggest that liver and hair values were related, and that pika hair reflected the Se concentrations of the geologic parent materials. We determined that animals residing in several remote areas in the Rocky Mountain region could be Se deficient and that increase in N deposition correlated with an increase rather than a decrease in Se values in pika hair. In addition, we found no relation between Se contents in hair and body condition index, suggesting that low Se levels may not have negative effects on individual pikas. Whether Se levels influence reproductive success of pikas is unknown and should be the focus of future studies.

Population dynamics and responses to management of plateau pikas Ochotona curzoniae

Summary Plateau pikas Ochotona curzoniae are considered a pest species on the Tibetan Plateau because they compete with livestock for forage and their burrowing could contribute to soil erosion. The effectiveness of pest control programmes in Tibet has not been measured, and it is not known whether changes in livestock management have exacerbated problems with plateau pikas or compromised their control. This study measured the impact of control programmes and livestock management for forage conservation on populations of plateau pikas in alpine meadow in Naqu District, central Tibet, during 2004 and 2005. Current techniques for controlling plateau pikas in spring cause large reductions in abundance, but high density‐dependent rates of increase result in no differences between treated and untreated populations by the following autumn. Rates of increase from spring to autumn are not influenced by standing plant biomass or concurrent grazing by yaks Bos grunniens and Tibetan sheep Ovis aries. In autumn there was significantly lower biomass outside fenced areas with year‐round livestock grazing compared with inside fenced areas with equivalent or higher numbers of plateau pikas but predominantly winter grazing by livestock. Inside fenced areas, control of plateau pikas in spring produced no detectable effect on standing plant biomass at the end of the following summer compared with uncontrolled populations of plateau pikas. Regardless of their initial density, populations of plateau pikas declined rapidly over winter outside fenced areas where there was very low standing plant biomass in autumn. However, inside fenced areas with higher plant biomass in autumn, low‐density populations of plateau pikas declined more slowly than high‐density populations. Synthesis and applications. Current control programmes have limited effect because populations of plateau pikas can recover in one breeding season. There was no apparent increase in forage production in areas where plateau pikas were controlled. However, plateau pikas appear to benefit from changes in grazing management, with low‐density populations declining less over winter inside fenced areas than elsewhere. It was not evident that control programmes are warranted or that they will improve the livelihoods of Tibetan herders.

A brief history of Great Basin pikas

AbstractAim Within the past few decades, seven of the 25 historically described populations of American pikas (Ochotona princeps) in the Great Basin of arid western North America appear to have become extinct. In this paper, the prehistoric record for pikas in the Great Basin is used to place these losses in deeper historical context.Location The Great Basin, or area of internal drainage, of the western United States.Methods The location, elevation, and age of all reported prehistoric Great Basin specimens of American pikas were extracted from the literature. Elevations of extinct pika populations were arrayed through time, and latitudes and longitudes of those populations used to determine changing distances of those populations from the nearest extant populations.Results The average elevation of now‐extinct Great Basin pika populations during the late Wisconsinan (c. 40,000–10,000 radiocarbon years ago) and early Holocene (c. 10,000–7500 years ago) was 1750 m. During the hot and dry middle Holocene (c. 7500–4500 years ago), the average elevation of these populations rose 435 m, to 2168 m. All prehistorically known late Holocene (c. 4500–200 years ago) populations in the Great Basin are from mountain ranges that currently support populations of this animal, but historic period losses have caused the average elevation of pika populations to rise an additional 152 m. The total elevational increase, from the late Wisconsinan and early Holocene to today, has been 783 m. As lower elevation pika populations were lost, their distribution increasingly came to resemble its modern form. During the late Wisconsinan, now‐extinct pika populations were located an average of 170 km from the nearest extant population. By the late Holocene, this distance had declined to 30 km.Main conclusions Prehistoric alterations in the distribution of pika population in the Great Basin were driven by climate change and attendant impacts on vegetation. Today, Great Basin pikas contend with both climate change and anthropogenic impacts and thus may be on the brink of extinction.

Dramatic decline of the threatened Ili pika Ochotona iliensis (Lagomorpha: Ochotonidae) in Xinjiang, China

The Vulnerable Ili pika Ochotona iliensis (Lagomorpha: Ochotonidae) is a poorly known mammal species that inhabits a restricted geographic range in the Tian Shan Mountains, Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, China. It was discovered in 1983, described in 1986, and subsequently investigated over the following decade. As no studies were conducted on this pika during the next 10 years, a comprehensive census was undertaken in the summers of 2002 and 2003, including all sites where it had previously been observed. Evidence of the Ili pika was found at only 6 of 14 sites censused, and was extinct in two of six regions, including the type and paratype localities (Jilimalale Mountain). Ili pika populations appear to have declined in three of six regions, and in only one region did the population appear to be comparable to a decade earlier. Like all rock-dwelling pikas, the Ili pika has a low population density and rate of reproduction. Additionally, populations on its preferred habitat of cliff faces are highly fragmented. Increased temperatures, possibly due to global warming, and increased grazing pressure may have interacted with the normal population dynamics of the Ili pika to contribute to its recent dramatic decline. We recommend that the Ili pika's Red List status be changed from Vulnerable to Endangered.

The mating system and gene dynamics of plateau pikas

Evolutionary theory suggests that mating systems should have substantial effects on gene dynamics of local populations. In polygynous species, local ‘breeding groups’ may produce significant genetic structure, due to genetic differences among groups, and rate of loss of genetic variation from such populations may be considerably slowed. We examined possible influences of the variable mating system and family group structure on genetic properties of a population of plateau pikas ( Ochotona curzoniae). Pika gene dynamics were examined via F-statistics and effective population sizes ( N e), calculated from genetic correlations within and among individuals and families. Genetic correlations were estimated from mating patterns, population demography, and dispersal patterns. Substantial genetic structure within the population was indicated by a strongly positive F LS. Genetic influence of natal dispersal out of pika families was indicated by a strongly negative inbreeding statistic ( F IL=−0.34). Effective size of the population was not greatly different from the census population, whereas a traditional estimate of effective size of the population was much lower, indicating that the family structure of the pikas results in a slowed loss of genetic variation over time. Thus, even though mating patterns of plateau pikas were variable, family structure had a strong influence on pika gene dynamics.

The plateau pika (Ochotona curzoniae) is a keystone species for biodiversity on the Tibetan plateau

It is necessary to look at the big picture when managing biological resources on the Qinghai—Xizang (Tibetan) plateau. Plateau pikas (Ochotona curzoniae) are poisoned widely across the plateau. Putative reasons for these control measures are that pika populations may reach high densities and correspondingly reduce forage for domestic livestock (yak, sheep, horses), and because they may be responsible for habitat degradation. In contrast, we highlight the important role the plateau pika plays as a keystone species in the Tibetan plateau ecosystem. The plateau pika is a keystone species because it: (i) makes burrows that are the primary homes to a wide variety of small birds and lizards; (ii) creates microhabitat disturbance that results in an increase in plant species richness; (iii) serves as the principal prey for nearly all of the plateau's predator species; (iv) contributes positively to ecosystem-level dynamics. The plateau pika should be managed in concert with other uses of the land to ensure preservation of China's native biodiversity, as well as long-term sustainable use of the pastureland by domestic livestock.