Poor Smallholder Research Articles

Determinants of Credit Constraint Conditions and Production Efficiency Among Farming Households in Southwestern Nigeria

Sustaining and improving production efficiency of resource poor smallholder farmers under the existing credit constraint conditions require the improvement of access to credit facilities and other factors involved. The study examined the factors influencing credit constraint (CC) and production efficiency of farming households in Oyo State, Nigeria. Primary data was randomly collected using structured questionnaire from 120 mixed farmers in the study area. Data was analyzed using descriptive analysis, probit regression and stochastic frontier analysis. The results shows that 79.2 percent of the respondents were credit constrained and this has negative influence on their production efficiency as credit constrained farming households (CCFH) were found to be less efficient with mean efficiency of 0.721 than unconstrained farming households with 0.913. Age, gender, education, and dependency ratio of farmers are significant variables that influenced credit constraint conditions of the farmers while the maximum likelihood estimate of the production frontier revealed that farm size, labour and quantity of agro-chemical used are positively and significantly related to the production efficiency of farmers. Given the largest proportion of CCFHs among farming population in South-Western Nigerian, this gap implies considerable potential loss in output due to inefficient production. Improving credit access of farming households in general but more particularly the CCFHs is desirable for higher production efficiency.

Improving the Efficiency of Domestic Vegetable Marketing Systems in East Africa

The majority of smallholders growing vegetables in East Africa market their produce domestically. It is an important source of income for many poor smallholder households and those involved in vegetable value chains. This paper highlights the major constraints of and identifies potential opportunities for improving the efficiency of domestic vegetable marketing systems in two countries – Kenya and Tanzania. Emphasis is given to tomato and onion as commonly marketed and consumed vegetables throughout the region. The authors also look at indigenous vegetables marketed domestically. Finally, they consider the importance of the export vegetable subsector as a role model for improving the efficiency, growth and economic value of domestic vegetable marketing systems in East Africa. This analysis should guide policy makers towards key interventions to facilitate the development of efficient vegetable marketing systems, contributing to poverty reduction and fostering economic growth in East Africa.

Food Priorities and Poverty: The Case of Smallholder Farmers in Rural Uganda

In this article, the food consumption patterns of poor rural smallholder farmers in Uganda are explored to see if they suggest useful ways for household welfare rankings. For this purpose, a ranking and testing procedure is developed to assert if people consume food items in a particular dominant order. The methodology is used to construct the so-called ‘hierarchy of menus’, which outline people’s priorities over a given set of consumption items. These hierarchies are compared and contrasted across different locations and with formal household survey expenditure data. Furthermore, it is illustrated how information on food priorities and underlying welfare distributions can be combined into a cost-effective instrument for poverty monitoring and as input into policymaking.

Impact of treadle pump irrigation technology on smallholder poverty and food security in Malawi: a case study of Blantyre and Mchinji districts

The Malawi Government has intensified the use of treadle pump irrigation technology in an attempt to increase agricultural production and also to enrich the livelihoods of resource-poor farmers. As a result, the treadle pump is gaining in popularity among smallholder farmers throughout the country. This study was conducted in the districts of Blantyre in the Southern Region and Mchinji in the Central Region of Malawi. A total of 50 treadle pump and 50 non-treadle pump farmers were interviewed in each district to assess the impact of treadle pump irrigation technology with regard to food security and poverty. Gross margin analysis showed that adopters of the technology had higher net farm incomes per hectare (NFIs/ha) than non-adopters per year. In Blantyre, NFI/ha value for adopters was MK122,855 (US$1007) compared with MK15,987 (US$131) for non-adopters under irrigation conditions. Similar results were found in Mchinji with MK51,858 (US$425) and MK16,090 (US$132) for adopters and non-adopters, respectively. Likewise, under rain-fed conditions, adopters had higher NFIs/ha than non-adopters: in Blantyre, the respective NFIs were MK19,497 (US$152) and MK3344 (US$27), whereas in Mchinji the respective values were MK16,896 (US$138) and MK10,084 (US$83). Furthermore, the well-being measurements and analyses of poverty revealed a higher poverty level among non-adopters compared with adopters. The former also had a greater relative risk of falling into deeper poverty than the latter. Transition matrices depicting movement in and out of poverty showed that from 2004 to 2005, some poor adopters moved out of poverty while some non-adopters dropped from being non-poor to poor. No adopter moved from non-poor to poor. From the results, it is concluded that the Government of Malawi should be urged to increase the availability of this kind of technology to the market at a reduced cost by offering tax incentives to local manufacturers and by using an input voucher system to subsidize qualified poor smallholder farmers.

Microfinance respecting Islamic banking principles in marginal dry areas

In Syria microfinance is a new industry that started in 1997. The Rural Community Development Program (RCDP) of the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the Syrian Ministry of Agriculture and Agrarian Reform (MAAR) establishes village credit and savings associations (sanadiq, plural of sanaduq) in the dry marginal region of Jabal al Hoss, southeast of the city of Aleppo. The sanadiq are considered promising institutions in providing microcredit to poor farmers, smallholders and landless workers in Muslim countries. The institutional framework enables sanadiq to operate where other formal lending institutions do not. Formal lending institutions have limited activity in poor rural areas due to time-consuming procedures, collateral requirements, lack of sufficient land assets or inappropriate land-tenure systems, and the inherent risk from irregular land productivity that results from low and variable rainfall. This article focuses on the impact of sanaduq microfinance on poverty, on what is needed to make the sanadiq self-standing institutions and whether the sanaduq system can be spread to other regions in Syria and the region.

Microfinance respecting Islamic banking principles in marginal dry areas

In Syria microfinance is a new industry that started in 1997. The Rural Community Development Program (RCDP) of the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the Syrian Ministry of Agriculture and Agrarian Reform (MAAR) establishes village credit and savings associations (sanadiq, plural of sanaduq) in the dry marginal region of Jabal al Hoss, southeast of the city of Aleppo. The sanadiq are considered promising institutions in providing microcredit to poor farmers, smallholders and landless workers in Muslim countries. The institutional framework enables sanadiq to operate where other formal lending institutions do not. Formal lending institutions have limited activity in poor rural areas due to time-consuming procedures, collateral requirements, lack of sufficient land assets or inappropriate land-tenure systems, and the inherent risk from irregular land productivity that results from low and variable rainfall. This article focuses on the impact of sanaduq microfinance on poverty, on what is needed to make the sanadiq self-standing institutions and whether the sanaduq system can be spread to other regions in Syria and the region.

The influence of tillage on field scale water fluxes and maize yields in semi-arid environments: A case study of Potshini catchment, South Africa

Water is a limiting resource to crop production in arid and semi-arid lands (ASALs) and is responsible for substantial yield losses annually. These lands are often occupied by resource poor smallholder rainfed farmers who have little capacity to establish conventional irrigation infrastructure to mitigate recurrent droughts and dry spells. In situ water harvesting techniques in the form of conservation agriculture practices have been identified and promoted as measures that can improve soil water availability and thus enhance crop yields. Land use practices e.g. tillage influences mechanisms of lateral flow, infiltration, storage, redistribution and residence times of water at field scale. Such alterations in flow paths have not been adequately studied in ASALs where small perturbations at field scale upstream of a catchment may have significant effects downstream. Quantifying these fluxes enables better understanding of productive and non-productive water transition processes and thus to evaluate cropping and management systems. On this study the effects of tillage on water fluxes, soil physical properties and maize ( Zea mays L.) yields were examined at three sites in the Potshini catchment, South Africa. Measurements were made on plots under no-till ( N T) and conventional till ( C T) practices. Seasonal analysis indicated that nearly twice as much runoff was generated from C T treatments when compared to N T plots. However, this was not the case at the beginning of the season. The moisture content in the root zone was significantly higher in N T treatments. Maize yield was also higher in N T compared to C T plots.

Livestock Revolution in India: Its Impact and Policy Response

A demand-driven revolution in livestock consumption and production is taking place in many developing countries, impacting on nutrition, health, the environment, and national and international agricultural marketing and research systems. This Livestock Revolution is most evident in China, India and Brazil because of the sheer size of these countries. While China and Brazil have a dominant role in meat production as part of this Livestock Revolution, the revolution will not be limited to China and Brazil, and extends beyond the meat market. The example of India is a case in point. The near doubling of aggregate milk consumption as food in India between the early 1980s and the late 1990s suggests that the Livestock Revolution goes beyond meat production and consumption. Now the critical question for economic managers and planners in countries such as India is no longer whether the Livestock Revolution is manifest in the country or not, but to what extent poor people and smallholders can play a significant part in this enterprise. This article charts the development of the Indian Livestock Revolution and assesses the potential impact of industrialization of livestock production on small farmers especially. It is argued that intensive livestock farming may not be appropriate for India on a number of grounds. There is a risk that the Livestock Revolution, similar to the Green Revolution, will polarize the inequality between rich and poor. Decisive action needs to be taken to ensure that the poor benefit from such developments, and some policy recommendations are made to address such concerns.

Impact of Forage Legume Hays Derived from Intercrop as Dry Season Feed Supplements for Lactating Bunaji Cows and N'dama Beef Cattle

Akinlade, J.A., Smith, J.W., Larbi, A., Adekunle, I.O., Taiwo, A.A. and Busari, A.A. 2003. Impact of forage legume hays derived from intercrop as dry season feed supplements for lactating Bunaji cows and N'dama beef cattle. J. Appl. Anim. Res., 24: 185–191. Two experiments were conducted concurrently to study the influence of three forage legume, hays (Stylosanthes guianensis, Centrosema pubescens and Cajanus cajan) obtained from maize—based intercropping system, as supplements to mature guinea grass (Panicum maximum). The legume hays were fed to lactating Bunaji cows (Experiment 1) and N'dama calves (experiment 2) for a period of 30 and 60 days, respectively using a completely randomized design with 4 animals per treatment in both trials. The dry matter degradation characteristics of the forage legumes were also assessed in three rumen—fistulated Bunaji castrates. Cows supplemented with C. pubescens and C. cajan produced higher milk (P<0.05) than those offered S. guianensis. Calves supplemented with C. pubescens and S. guianensis gained more weight (P<0.05) than those fed on C. cajan—supplement. Degradable fraction (b) were 338, 334 and 470g/kg for S. guianensis, C. pubesces and C. cajan, respectively. Additional benefits in terms of higher milk and body weight increase could be derived from the use of cereal-based inter-cropped forage legumes as supplements especially by poor resource African smallholder mixed farmers in the dry season.

The anthelmintic efficacy of the plant, Albizia anthelmintica, against the nematode parasites Haemonchus contortus of sheep and Heligmosomoides polygyrus of mice

Albizia anthelmintica Brong., belongs to the plant family Mimosaceae. The plant is widely used in East Africa by poor smallholder farmers and pastoralists to treat their livestock against internal parasites. The anthelmintic effects of water extracts from the bark of A. anthelmintica, obtained from three different geographic areas in Kenya and using different methods of preparation, were tested at different doses in sheep and mice infected with the nematode parasites Haemonchus contortus and Heligmosomoides polygyrus, respectively. Lambs were infected with 3000 infective larvae of H. contortus and treated with the plant preparations 28 days later, while mice were infected with 200 infective larvae of H. polygyrus and treated 18 days later. Proximate analysis established high levels of crude proteins in A. anthelmintica bark. Two sheep out of the 45 treated with the plant preparations suffered from transient bloat, which was relieved by dosing with a surfactant. Significant reductions in faecal egg counts were observed in lambs treated with A. anthelmintica in two of the three experiments undertaken, but the efficacy levels achieved were well below the 70% reduction required. Similar values of packed red cell volume and live weight gain were observed for treated and control lambs. There was no overall significant effect of treatment with A. anthelmintica on faecal egg and total worm counts in mice. A dose rate of 1000 mg/kg bodyweight of A. anthelmintica preparation resulted in death of all mice. The results show that A. anthelmintica at the doses and preparations used is not efficacious against H. contortus in sheep or against H. polygyrus in mice.

Promoting equity in large-scale renewable energy development: the case of Mauritius

About 90% of the arable land in Mauritius is under sugar cane, with an annual production of 600,000 tonnes of sugar. Around 1.8 million tonnes of bagasse are available annually, principally for electricity generation in the sugar factories, and lately, for producing power for export to the national grid. Following the enactment of appropriate legislation by Government, and active involvement of the local private entrepreneurs, bagasse-generated electricity exports to the grid have become a major source of revenue. To ensure that all stakeholders in the sugar industry benefit from the sale of electricity to the grid, the Government established the Bagasse Transfer Price Fund and the Sugar Investment Trust, which ensure that revenue from co-generation is equitably shared by all stakeholders. This paper presents the main features of the revenue-sharing mechanism, which ensures that substantial benefits flow to all key stakeholders of the sugar economy, including poor smallholder sugar farmers.

Advances in farming systems analysis and intervention

In this paper, we recognize two key components of farming systems, namely the bio-physical ‘Production System’ of crops, pastures, animals, soil and climate, together with certain physical inputs and outputs, and the ‘Management System’, made up of people, values, goals, knowledge, resources, monitoring opportunities, and decision making. Utilising upon these constructs, we review six types of farming systems analysis and intervention that have evolved over the last 40 years, namely: (1) economic decision analysis based on production functions, (2) dynamic simulation of production processes, (3) economic decision analysis linked to biophysical simulation, (4) decision support systems, (5) expert systems, and (6) simulation-aided discussions about management in an action research paradigm. Biophysical simulation modelling features prominently in this list of approaches and considerable progress has been made in both the scope and predictive power of the modelling tools. We illustrate some more recent advances in increasing model comprehensiveness in simulating farm production systems via reference to our own group's work with the Agricultural Production Systems Simulator (APSIM). Two case studies are discussed, one with broad-scale commercial agriculture in north-eastern Australia and the other with resource poor smallholder farmers in Africa. We conclude by considering future directions for systems analysis efforts directed at farming systems. We see the major challenges and opportunities lying at the interface of ‘hard’, scientific approaches to the analysis of biophysical systems and ‘soft’, approaches to intervention in social management systems.

The economic linkages between rural poverty and land degradation: some evidence from Africa

This paper focuses on the potential role of policy in influencing the poverty and land degradation problems facing Africa. This is done through exploring a few case studies, chosen from a broad spectrum of African countries — Sudan, Malawi, Nigeria, Ghana and Kenya. The first case study examines the comparative returns to the gum arabic agroforestry system cultivated by poor farmers in Northern Sudan, and the role of policies in influencing these returns. The second explores how erratic agricultural pricing policies in Malawi during the 1980s may have distorted the incentives of poor smallholders to adopt less-erosive crops in their farming systems. The third case study illustrates how inappropriate policies and investments can cause displacement of poorer rural groups from their traditional farming and grazing lands, by examining the loss of a major floodplain due to dam building in northern Nigeria. The final two case studies are concerned with policy ‘lessons learned’. The first looks at the impact of a macro-economic adjustment policy — in this case trade liberalization — on farmers’ decisions to expand cultivated area rather than intensify crop production in western Ghana. The final case study examines the role of policy in land management success story in Africa, the Machakos District, Kenya, and explores the critical question of whether this success can be replicated elsewhere in Africa. These case studies serve two important functions. First, they demonstrate how policy analysis can be effective in highlighting key dimensions of the poverty–environment linkages underlying land degradation. Second, they illustrate how both ‘good’ and ‘bad’ policies can affect the economic incentives determining poor rural household’s decisions to conserve or degrade their land.

Seeking guidelines for poverty reduction in rural Zambia

Poverty profiles typically provide policy makers with information about the characteristics of the poor without giving guidance as to the types of programs best suited for reducing poverty. A method is described in this paper for extending the typical poverty profile to analyze and quantify the constraints faced by poor smallholders in rural areas. The method is applied to rural Zambia, where poverty is widespread and deep. The extension provides timely information for the design of poverty-reducing policies.

The supplementary value of forage legume hays in sheep feeding: feed intake, nitrogen retention and body weight change

Supplementation with forage legumes could be a sustainable way of improving the feeding value of poor quality crop residues especially to the resource poor African smallholders. Thus, the potential of Desmodium intortum, Macrotyloma axillare and Stylosanthes guianensis in improving the utilization of a basal diet of maize stover by sheep was assessed in a feeding trial. Maize stover used in this experiment was high in lignocellulosic cell-wall constituents and very low in CP. S. guianensis hay contained higher CP and lower NDF, ADF, and lignin contents than D. intortum and M. axillare hays. According to animal responses, under the conditions of this experiment, S. guianensis was superior to the other two legumes in improving the feeding value to sheep of maize stover based diets. M. axillare was found to be inferior. In general, 250 g of S. guianensis and 350 g of D. intortum hays per day per sheep (18.2 kg Lwt ± 1.2) were found to be optimum levels of supplementation to maize stover. At these levels of supplementation modest levels of bodyweight gain were achieved. It is suggested that the two legumes are useful to bridge the gap in feed supply in areas where livestock depend on poor quality crop residues during the dry season.

Agronomy and Increased Maize Productivity in Eastern and Southern Africa

ABSTRACT The productivity of resource poor smallholders is low. Policy initiatives that facilitate access to existing maize production technologies are not sufficient to increase productivity for this group. There is a need for a redirected research agenda with priority being given to soil fertility management under constrained smallholder rotational systems. There are a number of technologies, including agroforestry, that offer this potential. Success is dependent on having both a detailed understanding of soil fertility and an understanding of the socio-economic circumstances of the farming community.