Poor Countries Research Articles

Przyszłość czasopisma Problemy Ekrozwoju/ Problems of Sustainable Development

In 2023 Problemy Ekorozwoju/ Problems of Sustainable Development turned 18, entering adulthood one could say. The journal debuted on January 1, 2006 as a philosophical journal published only in Polish. From 2008 we begun to publish papers also in English and soon decided to publish only in English. The scope of the journal was expanded and we begun to be multidisciplinary, publishing papers from the humanities, economics and technical sciences (especially environmental engineering).We have always, however, been devoted to sustainable development problematics. Our wider approach offers a chance for Polish scientists to present their research in an international journal (also from the field of humanities, where there are fewer possibilities for international presentations) to foreign scholars and vice versa. Since there are no fees, the journal also is more accessible for scientists from poorer countries. So far we have published 36 numbers (18 issues) with almost 700 scientific papers. From 2010 the journal has been fully indexed in the Web of Science and Scopus. The current IF is 1.1 (in the previous year it was 0.864). Other metrics include: CiteScore (Scopus): 1.9, highest percentile: 57%, Index Copernicus Value ICV: 148.59 and SJR Scimago Journal & Country Rank h-Index: 21. Over the last few years one could observe improvement in all of our international parameters. We have always been an Open Access journal. In recent years we introduced DOI numbers, Open Access Statement and Copyright Rights, Publication Ethics and Malpractice Statement. Soon we will also be visible in the Journal Checker Tool. From this number we are introducing Open Journal System (OJS). Currently the journal has the patronage of the European Academy of Science and Arts (Salzburg, Austria). The publisher is and has always been the Lublin University of Technology (Lublin, Poland).

Prevalence of parasitic infections in Al-Kindy Teaching Hospital and Medical City Teaching Hospital

Background: Intestinal parasitic infections including amoebiasis, blastocystosis, giardiasis, are all worldwide distribution with harmful effects, it is an important cause of morbidity and death rate in the poor countries. Objective: This study was done to collect information of the frequency of these diseases in some regions of Baghdad. Our objectives are to detect the frequency of human pathogenic parasites in some regions of Baghdad in stool samples of patients who would attend to AL-Kindy Teaching Hospital, Medical City Teaching Hospital and to determine the most common age group affected. Materials and Methods: Data were collected from Al-Kindy Teaching Hospital and Medical City Teaching Hospital, in the lab of parasitology from June 2021 to February 2022. The present study included (200) sample, which were collected from patients at different ages of both genders, samples of the study were selected randomly. Results: The results of epidemiological study showed that the total number infected with Entamoeba histolytica parasite was (129) positive samples with total percentage of (64.5%) in both of Al-Kindy Teaching Hospital and Medical City Teaching Hospital, Percentage of infective cases with this parasite in the two hospitals, were (93%, and 36%) respectively, followed by Blastocystis hominis with total number of (59) positive samples and a percentage of (29.5%). The percentage of infective cases with this parasite in the two hospitals, were (5%, and 54%) respectively, and then Giardia lamblia with total number of (12) positive samples, and a percentage of (6%). The percentage of infective cases with this parasite in the two hospitals, were (2%, and 10%) respectively. Males showed higher number and percentage of infection with E. histolytica, (85) case with percentage of (42.5%), while females were (44) case with percentage of (22%), while number and percentage of infection with B. hominis in males were (34) case with percentage of (17%), and females were (25) case with percentage of (12.5%), finally number and percentage of infection with G. lamblia in males (6) cases with percentage of (3%), equal females were (6) case with percentage of (3%). Infection highest percentage happened among age group (20-29) years with percentage of (28%), while the lowest percentage of infection occurred among age group (1-9) years, with percentage (1%), were detected in Medical City Teaching Hospital. In conclusions: Entamoeba histolytica was the most frequent parasite in our study, followed by Blastocystis hominis, while Giardia lambilia was the least frequent one. Also males were more affected than females to parasitic infections, and the most common age group affected was (20-29) years.Health education, safety of food and water must get higher to increase the knowledge of community about diseases caused by intestinal parasites.Using permanent stains, culture, molecular methods, and serological methods for detection of parasites, also making more studies including increasing in number of samples.

Quality of Life of Children in Orphanages: A Study in Bamako, Mali

The Republic of Mali is among the poorest countries on both the African continent and in the world. Nearly 70% of the population resides in rural areas, and 10% lead a nomadic lifestyle. Data from the African Development Bank indicates that 48% of the population is under the age of 15, 49% falls between the ages of 15 and 64, and 3% is over 65. The fertility rate stands at 7.4 births per woman. From a sociological perspective, the concept of "quality-of-life" is often likened to lifestyle. Factors such as adequate nutrition, health conditions, educational levels, and access to cultural and developmental facilities have come to be recognized as indicators of quality-of-life. This paper delves into a field study that investigated the quality-of-life of children residing in orphanages in Mali. In-depth interviews were conducted with officials from three orphanages in Bamako, Mali's capital—comprising one privately owned and two state-owned institutions. A qualitative research approach was employed. The data obtained from these interviews were digitized using the NVivo software package. This data was then organized into nodes, creating a structured relationship between the nodes and the data. Content analysis was applied to interpret the qualitative data, with emerging concepts being categorized into nodes during the coding phase. Observations made during the interviews were duly noted. Additionally, quantitative data from sources like the African Development Bank, UNDP Human Development Index, World Health Organization, and Bulletin of Statistics were integrated to reinforce the qualitative findings. Based on the accumulated data, themes were developed in alignment with the three primary indicators of quality-of-life: 1) Physical welfare and social security, 2) Life expectancy, and 3) Opportunities for personal growth and education. The study's findings reveal that, regardless of the differences between state-owned and privately-owned orphanages, the overall quality-of-life of the children is below the expected standard across all three indicators.

Who Is Responsible for the Climate Crisis? A Perspective from the Global South

ABSTRACT This article argues that insistence on adaptation to climate change, popularised by the rich nations of the Global North, is crowding out discussions on mitigation strategies. Mitigation (or degrowth) is central to formulating a fair and collective strategy to tackle the climate crisis at the global scale. In this context, we have calculated the historical cumulative emissions, material footprints, and carbon debt, which are essential prerequisites to tackling the climate crisis. This article empirically proves that the Global North owes a huge carbon debt based on historical cumulative emissions. We estimate the carbon debt of all the outlier countries (carbon debtors) to be US$ 3127.28 trillion, of which the US (the United States) and EU (European Union, including 28 countries) owe US$ 1174.19 and US$ 771.90 trillion, respectively. The paper concludes that any adaptation policy requires settling this debt through directly financing adaptation operations in the poor countries of the Global South and effective mitigation (de-growth) policies in the Global North.

Labour Rights in the Wake of the WTO

One of the most contentious issues surrounding globalization includes trade and labours rights. In the real world, trade and labour circumstances have an impact on one another. Trading nations should be subject to significant labour standards. It was believed that enforcing labour standards via trade agreements helps to improve the working conditions and income in poor countries, and minimize wage inequalities between rich and poor countries. The World Trade Organization’s (WTOs) establishment has resulted in the liberalization of trade and investment. Transnational corporations (TNCs) have become more economically powerful than many countries around the world in today’s era of globalization and free trade. These powerful TNCs are violating labour rights and are not accountable for that because of the lack of a legal framework. This calls for a look at issues that arise at the interface of international trade and labour standards, including a brief historical review of labour rights and the, as well as the impact of TNCs on labours and accountability. World Trade Organization, Labour Rights, International Labour Organization, Globalization, Trade, Transnational Corporations, International Labour Rights, Free Trade, Labour standards

Does resource scarcity increase self-serving dishonesty? Most people wrongly believe so.

Does resource scarcity increase people's inclination to engage in self-serving dishonesty? Whereas some theories suggest so, we found no evidence for this across four studies, but a fifth study revealed that most people (wrongly) believe that it does. More precisely, based on three well-powered preregistered online experiments (overall N = 4,193), complemented by two pilot studies (N = 51 and N = 49, respectively) and one manipulation check study (N = 424), we provide evidence that neither exogenously induced resource scarcity nor priming people into a scarcity mindset influences people's inclination to engage in self-serving dishonesty. Furthermore, by linking country-level poverty data to a country-level indicator of self-serving dishonesty based on a recent meta-analysis comprising 47 countries and more than 44,000 participants, we found that people living in poorer countries are no more inclined to engage in self-serving dishonesty than people living in richer countries. Finally, we found that most people-and especially men and people low in Agreeableness versus Anger-wrongly believe that people living in poorer countries are more willing to engage in self-serving dishonesty (N = 658). Overall, our investigation adds new evidence to the burgeoning literature on the link between resource scarcity (in the form of poverty) and unethical behavior (in the form of self-serving dishonesty). (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

The Global North Culture as a Palimpsest.

This is a reflection from three Black South African doctors - two women and a man. We studied at the institution that we are currently working in, which is a former white university that was not permitted to train Black medical students by the apartheid government. We experienced the segregation in healthcare and witnessed how our communities did not have access to it. The COVID-19 pandemic unearthed major challenges and asymmetries, particularly for the Black race and poor countries. For countries such as South Africa, it brought back memories of the apartheid past with the history of segregation and discrimination.

The case for a World Carbon Bank

This paper explores the idea of creating a new multilateral financial institution, a World Carbon Bank, to channel aid funds and technical expertise to low and middle-income countries, to aid with the green transition. A focused high-return first project could involve phasing out coal power plants and replacing with green alternatives. Coal accounts for 30% of global emissions. Many coal plants are located outside advanced economies and are relatively new. The costs of swapping them out is significant, and most poorer countries have little incentive or capacity to do so. WCB funds would be outright grants and not loans.

Analysing the Impact of Climate Change on Human Rights Through the Legislative Framework

The natural environment gives human creatures and the communities in which we live with the assets we have to be accomplish lives of nobility and well-being – clean air to breathe; clean water to drink; nourishment to eat; powers for vitality; security from storms, surges, fires and dry spell; climate control and illness control; and places to assemble for tasteful, recreational and otherworldly delight. These natural endowments often referred to as environment services that are at once essential for the core survival and imperative to human prospering. Every nation on the globe is paying the price of climate change but the most suffering category is the poorest countries who will suffer more in future from the enduring climate change. It is one of the most challenging strand in today’s era that humankind is facing and have affected not only economic, social aspects of life but has some major human rights repercussions. As there is a direct link between environment and human rights and Effects of climate change leads to large scale human rights violation. In order to overcome the aftermath of climate change each and every country in the world including governmental agencies and private actors should respond to these impacts in the best possible manner.

The Impact of Trade Flows on Economic Development in the Black Sea region

Abstract Research carried out before shows that, although only exports contribute directly to GDP growth, the actual impact of imports on it is not necessarily negative. The increase in the value of imports shows an increase in demand in the domestic market, hence a better purchasing power and standard of living than in some of the exporting countries. Practice shows that many of the poor countries are dependent on exports, which usually consist in raw materials or products without much added value, while the most developed countries have negative trade balances. The study involves the use of the least-squares method, in EVIEWS 12, to determine the relationship between the annual increase in the volume of foreign trade of the states in the Black Sea region and the annual increase in GDP, respectively the increase in GDP per capita, by estimating simple linear regressions, using annual data from the period of 1990-2021. The research results show positive relationships between the mentioned indicators in the case of all the states analyzed, showing that even in the Black Sea region, although economies and societies have very diversified structures, often in competition or even in conflict, trade plays an important role for the economic growth, whether the trade balance of the analyzed state is positive or negative.

ЕКОНОМІКА НАДЛИШКУ ГРОШЕЙ

The article is devoted to the formation of an economy in which there is a relative surplus of money. Excess money is seen as a consequence of the policy of quantitative easing, which was carried out by the central banks of developed countries. Peculiarities of growth in the ratio of money supply and gross domestic product for individual countries have been studied. It is shown that financing the reconstruction of Ukraine corresponds to the own economic interests of the donor countries, as it will help to correct certain systemic imbalances of monetary circulation in their economies. This imbalance is embodied in a relative surplus of money. This surplus is of a different nature than that implied by the quantity theory of money. From the point of view of behavioral economics, money is a tool for motivating the subject to action (or, when necessary, inaction). Stimulation of activity, in particular, entrepreneurial activity, due to the opportunity to get more money is a characteristic feature of the capitalist economy. Considering that the value of money is important not in itself, but in relation to what it is used for, we can imagine that the creeping inflation of even the most seemingly basic and solid world currencies (the US dollar, the British pound, the euro) is evidence of a certain loss of vision of what money is needed for and, accordingly, how much money is needed in the economy. The dynamics of the ratio of the money supply to the manufactured product can serve as an indicator of the existence of a problem in the monetary supply of the functioning of the world economy. A gradual increase in the ratio of money supply to GDP is observed in all countries. The rate of growth of this indicator in developed countries is generally close to the world average. In poor countries characterized by low rates of economic growth, the ratio of money supply to GDP remains quite low. Moreover, in our opinion, the leading role here is played not so much by low per capita income as by low rates of economic growth. According to the group of countries with an average level of per capita income (and especially, with “above average” incomes), the ratio is significantly higher than the world average level. The growth of the ratio of money supply to GDP is especially noticeable in the countries of the Far East, which took as an example the strategy that led to the Japanese “ economic miracle.” This strategy involves the acceleration of economic growth at the expense of the preemptive development of export-oriented industries. Periods of accelerated economic development precisely reveal the motivational role of money. Entrepreneursinnovators should receive more money. the state, or rather, its monetary regulator, the central bank, facilitates the conditions providing loans to help innovators dare and take a decisive step into something new. Entrepreneurs have separated the desire to earn money from the desire to spend to meet real needs. Due to the saturation of the economy with money, the state has already reached a high level of monetization, which indicates accumulated monetary wealth. The owners of this monetary wealth need new directions of investment, because after the ideological and motivational potential of Internetization was exhausted, the banking and financial infrastructure began to fail. A series of crises (2001, 2008-2009, 2020) was the result of a mismatch between the large accumulated monetary wealth and the lack of ideas for its profitable investment. Reconstruction of Ukraine can become such a profitable investment idea.

Study of the prevalence of the parasite Entamoeba histolytica in the Zawia – Libya

The parasite Entamoeba histolytica is widespread worldwide, and it is increasingly prevalent in poor countries, causing amoebic dysentery. The parasite is transmitted to humans, by eating or drinking water contaminated with the parasite. It spreads to all ages and both sexes. The parasite has two stages, the Trophozoite stage and the cystic stage. The youngest patient was 10 months old and the oldest was 80 years old. The Rate of parasite infestation is 34%. For children under the age of 15 years, the infestation rate was 53%, while the percentage was 24% for those whose ages ranged between 15-30 years, while the percentage was 5.5% for those whose ages ranged between 30-45 years; while the percentage Was 18% for those who were they are over 45 years old. The infection rate in males only was 37% and in females, only the rate was 31%. There are no differences between the averages of infection during the study months (1-8) Months

COVID-19 pandemic complexities on endemic infectious disease management and diagnosis in poor countries

The persistence and frequency of prevalent infectious diseases continue to be a major problem on the African continent. Malaria, TB, and HIV/AIDS are the most common infectious diseases in Sub-Saharan Africa. Malaria and tuberculosis have had a considerable negative impact on poor nations’ health, resulting in high mortality and morbidity. Fortunately, the World Health Organization’s introduction of the RTS, S/AS01 malaria vaccine may soon put an end to the lingering difficulties in malaria eradication, barring new contagious disease outbreaks like COVID-19. The literature reviewed looked at the current condition of endemic infectious illnesses in low-income countries from 2018 to 2022. Improvements in disease management and other mitigating strategies were evaluated alongside the resurgence of malaria, and particularly tuberculosis, the deadliest infectious disease of considerable global health concern in recent decades. The study’s focus was the destructive effects of COVID-19 on the treatment and prevention of infectious illnesses. PubMed, Web of Science, and Google Scholar were used as relevant databases. The COVID-19 pandemic had a significant global impact on Africa, but not because the continent was directly impacted by the scourge and its fatal effects; rather, it did so by successfully forcing resource reallocation and diverting medical personnel to COVID-19 treatment, which in turn made TB, malaria, and HIV/AIDS-related problems worse. To halt the endemicity of these diseases and their potential intensification if a new pandemic like COVID-19 emerges in the future, enhanced efforts from all stakeholders, particularly in poorer climes, are required to be more inward looking and less reliant on foreign support.

Mapping framework conditions for societal participation of immigrants - a cluster analysis of medium-sized cities in Germany

Immigrants, or people who are read as such, face unequal participation opportunities. This is mainly due to poor host country language skills, inexperience with and barriers within administrative processes. Especially in cities beyond metropolises, scepticism through inexperience regarding immigration reinforces inequality. Although immigration to smaller cities is increasing, studies regarding this remain scarce. The goal of this paper is to examine spatial-structural conditions of participation opportunities for immigrants in medium-sized cities (MSC) and thus develop a basis for further research to address the particular challenges for immigrants in MSC. Therefore, I question the spatial patterns and characteristics of immigrants’ participation opportunities in MSC. Cluster analysis and mapping methods are used to analyse data relevant to societal participation at the municipal level with reference to immigration. The data refer to MSC in Germany, a country that plays a significant role for immigration in Europe. Six clusters with different levels of participation opportunities emerge. One of the main results are the regional disparities between the former FRG (West Germany) and the former GDR (East Germany) expected under hypothesis 1. Almost all MSC in the former GDR can be assigned to the cluster with the greatest challenges for immigrants’ participation. At the same time, according to hypothesis 2, other regional differences can be identified, which are manifested by political-administrative boundaries, but also extend beyond them. Rural areas do not necessarily offer worse conditions for immigrants’ participation than dense regions. However, the mapping shows two participation ‘belts’ in the southwest between the large cities Frankfurt am Main and Stuttgart and in the central northwest between the Ruhr region and Hanover. The two belts contain a large number of strong MSC with good framework conditions for immigrant’s participation. Especially in the ‘arrival’ belt between Frankfurt am Main and Stuttgart it covers MSC of widely varying sizes. Hypothesis 3 illustrates how local peculiarities also in the former GDR allow contrary developments and show the importance of further research.

Towards a Sustainable Society: Exploring the Services of Social Entrepreneurs through an Islamic Lens

Financial support is the basic need of a society to fulfil its economic requirements. But due to the limited resources, it is not possible for the governments of poor countries to perform sustainable tasks for the betterment of human society. This paper examines the significance of social entrepreneurs who establish their businesses to resolve social, cultural, or environmental issues while taking higher financial risks. This act of social entrepreneurship is the novelty of this study. Moreover, this study adds to the body of knowledge by contrasting the Islamic perspective of Social Entrepreneurship with contemporary thoughts. The science-direct and google-scholars databases have been used for reviewing the data collection. The study may provide a benchmark to assist government policymakers. This paper is also discussing the Islamic perspective of social entrepreneurship.

Study of the prevalence of the parasite Entamoeba histolytica in the Zawia – Libya

The parasite Entamoeba histolytica is widespread worldwide, and it is increasingly prevalent in poor countries, causing amoebic dysentery. The parasite is transmitted to humans, by eating or drinking water contaminated with the parasite. It spreads to all ages and both sexes. The parasite has two stages, the Trophozoite stage and the cystic stage. The youngest patient was 10 months old and the oldest was 80 years old. The Rate of parasite infestation is 34%. For children under the age of 15 years, the infestation rate was 53%, while the percentage was 24% for those whose ages ranged between 15-30 years, while the percentage was 5.5% for those whose ages ranged between 30-45 years; while the percentage Was 18% for those who were they are over 45 years old. The infection rate in males only was 37% and in females, only the rate was 31%. There are no differences between the averages of infection during the study months (1-8) Months

Aging of the Global Population as an Integral Problem of the Future

This article analyzes the process of global population aging, which has a significant impact on all areas of public life in the 21st century. The influence of the population aging process on various areas of social activity will be determined by its scale and depth, i.e. by the potential demographic structure of the future society. At the same time, the ability of modern society to cope with elevated risks associated with this process is a problematic matter. The risks and problems associated with population aging include economic recessions, pension crises, the issue of caring for the increasingly more numerous disabled and frail people, maintaining the financial savings of the elderly, the issue of ageism, and the vulnerability of the elderly during periods of crisis and pandemics, and consequently maintaining life expectancy as well as stable democracy and even world order. These risks and problems are of particular concern given that by the mid-21st century two thirds of people over the age of 65 will be living in medium and low income countries. Moreover, aging will affect even today’s poorest countries that are located in Sub-Saharan Africa with their populations that are still young as of today. In view of this, the problem of social security and healthcare for the elderly is becoming increasingly acute and requires implementing proactive measures. The problem of population aging does not get enough attention from such international organizations as the UN and WHO; in general, studies on this issue both in the public realm and in scientific discourse are limited. However, even now global aging is an extremely important problem, and we assume that it will become the most crucial problem in the future. Thus, not paying sufficient attention to it might lead to negative consequences such as societal tensions, crises and intergenerational conflicts, as well as political and social instability. In this article we approach the process from the perspective of transitioning from perceiving it as a problem to considering it as something that provides new opportunities associated with the more mature and older generation possessing worldly wisdom and experience. Today specific measures must be taken in different areas, and special long-term programs must be adopted to promote a higher health-related quality of life (HRQoL) for the older generation, as well as to combat the widespread stereotype of feeling doomed at an old age, the idea being that your life is over. Grinin et al. point out the importance of technologies, the development of which can be stimulated specifically by the process of global aging and the need to increase life expectancy. As a background for the forthcoming technological wave (which we refer to as the Cybernetic Revolution), global aging may create an acute demand for labor-conservation technologies, as well as provide a powerful stimulus for the field of medicine. Progress in the latter realm would help prolong working age and improve health-related (biological) quality of life.

Female smallholder farmers’ preferences for digital and conventional credit attributes: evidence from Madagascar

PurposeDigital credit is spreading rapidly across Sub-Saharan Africa and holds potential for financial inclusion and female financial autonomy. Women in developing economies have long been targeted by microfinance institutions due to the women’s reliability and positive spillover effects. Yet, adoption rates for digital financial innovations remain moderate among rural women in Sub-Saharan Africa. The authors explore whether female preferences for digital and conventional credit differ from males.Design/methodology/approachThe authors conduct a Discrete Choice Experiment with 420 smallholder farmers in central Madagascar, one of the region's poorest countries, to assess preferences for selected digital and conventional credit attributes.FindingsResults of the mixed logit model and the comparison of the willingness-to-pay via Poe-test suggest high general demand for both credit forms. The demand of female respondents is higher than that of males, suggesting that they might be underserved. This holds for both credit forms. However, differences in willingness to pay for the credit attributes are mostly not statistically significant, indicating that designing gender-specific services may not be advisable.Originality/valueThis article is believed to be the first to assess and compare gendered willingness to pay for digital and conventional credit. The study’s findings give valuable insights to decision-makers in development politics as well as the fintech industry.

It’s time African Countries utilized the WTO, Dispute Settlement Understanding more to leverage their International Trade Interests

The paper deconstructs the law relating to WTO, Dispute Settlement Mechanisms (DSMs) to establish why African Countries have failed to harness it to leverage their international trade Interests. There is compelling evidence to affirm that many African Countries are marginalized in international trade because many odds including failure to harness the WTO Dispute Settlement are stacked against them. The ability of African Countries in international trade has been saddled by many factors that characterize Less Developed Countries. The Uruguay Round (1986-94) introduced many changes such as the reduced timelines (from when disputes are initiated to when they are disposed of), admission of third parties to represent poor Countries which may be deficient in requisite capacity to handle the complexity of the World trade disputes mechanisms. This paper posits that the marginalization of African Countries in the World trade system is partly caused by inherent factors that saddle them as Less Developed Economies. We adopted hybrid doctrinal and qualitative methodological approaches by way of reviewing WTO relevant Agreements, existing literature and evaluating evidence in the context of objectives for writing the paper. The findings corroborate that African Countries have been sidelined in international trade system because they have not utilized the Dispute Settlement Understanding Agreement to leverage their international trade interest well.

Strategy of The Women Empowerment Child Protection and Family Planning Agency (DP3AKB) In The Prevention and Reduction of Stunting in Simeulue Regency

Stunting is a nutritional problem faced by the world, especially poor countries and growing. Malnutrition status in pregnant women is a major factor cause children under five to experience stunting, Simeulue Regency there are 746 toddlers who malnutrition, 8 toddlers who experience malnutrition and there are 1162 toddlers who are stunted. The purpose of this study was to determine stunting prevention strategies conducted by DP3AKB in Simeulue Districh. This research is research qualitative case study approach using in-depth interviews as reference, observation and documentation. (1) provision of diverse, nutritious, balanced, and safe; (2) training/counseling and counseling on nutrition, exclusive breastfeeding, and MPASI; (3) social protection for increasing access of pregnant and lactating mothers and toddlers to health insurance; (4) provision of clean water, sanitation and other appropriateactivities village local needs.