Polypedates Leucomystax Research Articles

<p class="HeadingRunIn"><strong>A new tree frog in the genus <em>Polypedates</em> (Anura: hacophoridae) from southern Thailand</strong></p>

We describe a new species of Southeast Asian rhacophorid frog belonging to the Polypedates leucomystax species complex from Songkhla Province, southern Thailand. Polypedates discantus sp. nov. is distinguished from its congeners by the combination of having the skin of the head not co-ossified with the skull; absent or indistinct white dots on the back of the thigh; paired-vocal sac openings; and a round tubercle on the tibiotarsal articulation. The new species is also distinguished from P. leucomystax and P. megacephalus in univariate and multivariate analyses of quantitative morphometric characters, and has uncorrected pairwise distances of 6.61-7.16% from its closest relative, P. leucomystax, in the mitochondrial 16S rRNA gene. The new species has four distinct male advertisement call types, consisting of one-note, two-note, three-note and staccato calls. The new species occurs syntopically with P leucomystax at the type locality.

Observation of Frog Species in State University of Malang as a Preliminary Effort on Frog Conservation

Frog is an amphibian which widely distributed around the world. Indonesia houses 450 species which represent 11% of frog species in the world. In Java Island living 42 species of frogs and toads. Frogs can be used as an environment indicator due to the presence of frog in a particular place indicates that the place is stay natural and unpolluted. State University of Malang Campus #1 which is located in the heart of Malang District has been developing rapidly, currently. Thus, it requires for the construction of new various facilities to support it widen activities. Extensive construction can be destructive even damaging to the habitat of frog, which potentially threat the frog life, if it does not take a consideration on the environmental impact, carefully. This study aimed to identify the species of frog which is survives in State University of Malang with consideration of the frog species found in 1995. Species identification conducted by observing the morphologicalcharacter. This study found four species with three species which are survive and as found in 1995; those are Duttaphrynus melanostictus, Polypedates leucomystax, and Kaloula baleta; and one new species that is Rana chalconota. This study also reveals there are four species which are extinct; those are Fejervarya cancrivora, Fejervarya limnocharis, Ingerophrynus biporcatus, and Occidoziga lima. This situation shows the decreasing amount of species from 7 to 4 within 17 years. This result indicates that there is a serious environmental degradation which caused the losing of frog habitats. Further research is needed to study the ecological condition changing in order to save the frog species.

Observation of Frog Species in State University of Malang as a Preliminary Effort on Frog Conservation

Frog is an amphibian which widely distributed around the world. Indonesia houses 450 species which represent 11% of frog species in the world. In Java Island living 42 species of frogs and toads. Frogs can be used as an environment indicator due to the presence of frog in a particular place indicates that the place is stay natural and unpolluted. State University of Malang Campus #1 which is located in the heart of Malang District has been developing rapidly, currently. Thus, it requires for the construction of new various facilities to support it widen activities. Extensive construction can be destructive even damaging to the habitat of frog, which potentially threat the frog life, if it does not take a consideration on the environmental impact, carefully. This study aimed to identify the species of frog which is survives in State University of Malang with consideration of the frog species found in 1995. Species identification conducted by observing the morphologicalcharacter. This study found four species with three species which are survive and as found in 1995; those are Duttaphrynus melanostictus, Polypedates leucomystax, and Kaloula baleta; and one new species that is Rana chalconota. This study also reveals there are four species which are extinct; those are Fejervarya cancrivora, Fejervarya limnocharis, Ingerophrynus biporcatus, and Occidoziga lima. This situation shows the decreasing amount of species from 7 to 4 within 17 years. This result indicates that there is a serious environmental degradation which caused the losing of frog habitats. Further research is needed to study the ecological condition changing in order to save the frog species.

Ultrastructure and motility of the spermatozoa of Polypedates leucomystax (Amphibia, Anura, Rhacophoridae)

Sperm morphology is thought to be shaped by evolutionary pressure from the fertilization environment. Rhacophoridae (Amphibia, Anura) include both foam-nesting and nonfoam-nesting species and exhibit a variety of sperm morphologies. Here, we examine the sperm morphology and motility of a foam-nesting Rhacophoridae frog, Polypedates leucomystax. Their spermatozoa have a sickle-shaped head and a thick tail containing two axonemes with their doublet microtubule ones (Db1s) facing one another. These two axonemes are surrounded by hundreds of satellite microtubules that form a hexagonal lattice structure. The spermatozoa move spirally by directly converting their tail movements into propulsion force, similar to the movement of the sickle-shaped spermatozoa of Xenopus laevis. By comparing the spermatozoa of P. leucomystax to those of other foam-nesting Rhacophoridae frogs, Rhacophorus and Chiromantis, and to the nonfoam-nesting Rhacophoridae frog, Buergeria buergeri, we found the following: (i) Spermatozoa of foam-nesting Rhacophoridae share common morphological features, a pair of axonemes and crystallized satellite microtubules. (ii) Spermatozoa of nonfoam-nesting Rhacophoridae do not exhibit these features. (iii) Sperm motility in foam-nesting Rhacophoridae is adapted to viscous environments. (iv) A diversity of sperm morphology and motility exists even among foam-nesting Rhacophoridae frogs. (v) The spermatozoa of Rhacophorus are more adapted to the foam nest than the spermatozoa of Polypedates.

Genealogy and Demographic History of a Widespread Amphibian throughout Indochina

Relatively little is known about spatial patterns of cryptic diversity in tropical species and the processes that generate them. Few studies examine the geographic distribution of genetic lineages in Southeast Asia, an area hypothesized to harbor substantial cryptic diversity. We investigated the evolutionary history of Asian tree frogs of the Polypedates leucomystax complex (n = 172) based on 1800 bp of the mtDNA genes ND1 and cytochrome b and tested hypotheses pertaining to climate, geology, and dispersal patterns. Analyses revealed substantial genetic diversity and lineage divergence throughout the region with evidence for widespread sympatric lineages and a general north versus south clustering. Relaxed molecular clock analysis and tests for demographic expansion identified an initial cladogenesis during the Miocene with subsequent Plio-Pleistocene diversification, with the former corresponding to periods of increased aridity and the onset of monsoonal weather systems. Rates of diversification were relatively constant until the Early Pleistocene when rates increased exponentially. We found equivocal evidence for isolation-by-distance and a potential role of some landscape features as partial barriers to dispersal. Finally, our analyses showed that divergence between insular and mainland populations occurred before Homo sapiens colonized Southeast Asia, suggesting that historical human-mediated dispersal did not drive insular diversification. Our results suggested that demographic expansion in the Late Pleistocene resulted in widespread sympatric lineages in the P. leucomystax complex throughout southern China and Indochina and further clarified the evolutionary history of lineages within P. leucomystax.

Embryo Development of Tree Frog Polypedates leucomystax at Campus of State University of Malang

Tree frogs live in natural places which are unpolluted. Regarding their role as an ecological indicator, the decrease of frogs population in a particular habitat indicates the danger of environment quality decrease. Moreover, this condition can harm the frogs themselves. All kinds of frogs breed in aqueous environment such as ponds, marshes, and farming fields. One of the tree frogs, Polypedates leucomystax, which belongs to Familia Rachophoridae, is widely spread in Indonesia. This frog has yellowish brown skin with black spots or six lines extending from head to the posterior tip of body. A breeding couple of the frog produces foam nests on the water or plants around water body, where they will nest their fertilized eggs. This species produces over a hundred embryos in one spawning season. These embryos require appropriate conditions to develop normally in the nature. Frog embryo development may becomes a reference to understand how the frog population survives. This study focused on P. leucomystax with regards to its decrease in number due to the drying up of the environment and a lot lost of trees in Campus of State University of Malang. The development of P. leucomystax embryos in the reproduction foam was observed until it reached a tadpole stage. The result showed that the embryos developed in the foam until they hatched then they move out of the foam into the water under which they would continue their development. Considering that water body is a critical requirement for the development of P. leucomystax embryos, it is our responsibility to make any efforts to conserve not only the trees but also any type of water bodies including ponds, marshes, and farming fields as well. Keywords: embryo development, Polypedates leucomystax, Tree frog conservation

Phylogenetic and taxonomic relationships of the Polypedates leucomystax complex (Amphibia)

Kuraishi, N., Matsui, M., Hamidy, A., Belabut, D. M., Ahmad, N., Panha, S., Sudin, A., Yong, H. S., Jiang, J.‐P., Ota, H., Thong, H. T. & Nishikawa, K. (2012). Phylogenetic and taxonomic relationships of the Polypedates leucomystax complex (Amphibia). —Zoologica Scripta, 42, 54–70.We investigated the phylogenetic and taxonomic relationships and estimated the history of species diversification and biogeography in the Asian rhacophorid genus Polypedates, focusing on the Polypedates leucomystax complex, whose members are notoriously difficult to classify. We first estimated phylogenetic relationships within the complex using 2005‐bp sequences of the mitochondrial 12S rRNA, tRNAval and 16S rRNA genes with maximum parsimony, maximum likelihood (ML) and Bayesian methods of inference. Polypedates exhibits well‐supported monophyly, with distinct clades for P. otilophus, P. colletti, P. maculatus and the P. leucomystax complex, consisting of P. macrotis, and the Malay (Polypedates sp. from Malay Peninsula), North China (P. braueri), South China (Polypedates cf. mutus 1), Indochina (P. megacephalus), Sunda (P. leucomystax) and Laos (Polypedates cf. mutus 2) clades. In a subsequent phylogenetic analysis of 4696‐bp sequences of the nuclear brain‐derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), sodium/calcium exchanger 1 (NCX), POMC, Rag‐1, Rhod and Tyr genes using Bayesian methods of inference, all of these clades were recovered. Some clades of the P. leucomystax complex occur sympatrically and show high genetic diversity or morphological and acoustic differences. Similar tendencies were observed between some allopatric clades. Therefore, we consider each of these groups to be distinct specifically. We also estimated absolute divergence times within the genus using Bayesian methods. Divergence in Polypedates began with the divergence of a primarily South Asian Clade from the common ancestor of secondarily South‐East Asia P. maculatus and South‐East Asian members. The divergence between the latter occurred much later. The P. leucomystax complex diverged in the Pliocene, much later than other congeners, and seems to have been greatly affected by human‐related dispersal after the Pleistocene.

Evidence of Reduced Feeding and Oxidative Stress in Common Tree Frogs (Hypsiboas pulchellus) from an Agroecosystem Experiencing Severe Drought

The intensification of modern agriculture may impact amphibian populations through habitat loss and the direct and indirect effects of the pesticides upon which it relies. The increased homogeneity of modern agricultural landscapes may be detrimental in times of extreme low and high temperatures associated with climate change, as refuge abundance and habitat connectivity decrease. In this study, we evaluated the impacts of the herbicide glyphosate and subsequent intense drought on the Common Tree Frog, Hypsiboas pulchellus, inhabiting an agricultural landscape. We examined a series of organismic indices (stomach content index, hepatosomatic index, body fat index, gonadosomatic index, condition factor) as well as biomarkers of oxidative stress (hepatic catalase activity and reduced glutathione [GSH] content), exposure to contaminants (hepatic gluthatione-S-transferase activity), and genotoxicity (frequency of micronuclei). No significant differences were observed in the parameters measured when comparing frogs sampled before, 2, and 15 days after glyphosate exposure. However, anurans sampled in the same site two months later, when a drought was at its peak, presented a decrease in stomach content and hepatosomatic index, as well as an increase in hepatic catalase activity, hepatic GSH content and micronuclei frequency in peripheral circulating erythrocytes. Our findings demonstrate that drought is challenging to these anurans in this environment as evidenced by an apparent reduction in food intake and oxidative stress.

Distribution of Anuran Species in Loboc Watershed of Bohol Island, Philippines

The Philippines is rich in biodiversity and Bohol Island is among the many places in the country requiring attention for conservation efforts. For this reason, a survey of anurans was conducted in Loboc Watershed, the forest reserve in the island. Different sampling techniques were used. Three transect lines was established and were positioned perpendicular to water bodies parallel to the existing trails. A 10x10 meter quadrat size was established along each transect line. A visual encounter technique was used along each established quadrat and identification was done using a field guide. Fifteen species of anurans were recorded. One species belongs to families Bufonidae ( Bufo marinus ) and Megophryidae ( Megophryis stejnegeri ); two to family Microhylidae ( Kalophrynus pleurostigma and Kaluola picta ); six families Ranidae ( Fejervarya cancrivora, Limnonectes leytensis , Limnonectes magnus , Platymantis guentheri , Playmantis corrugatus , and Rana grandocula ) and five Rhacophoridae ( Nyctixalus spinosus, Polypedates leucomystax leucomystax, Polypedates leucomystax quadrilineatus, Rhacophorus appendiculatus and Rhacoporus pardalis ). The disturbed nature of the area still recorded endemic and threatened species. This suggests that forests and critical habitats in the area need to be protected and conserved.

Morphometry of Striped Tree Frogs, Polypedates leucomystax (Gravenhorst, 1829) from Indonesia with Description of a New Species

We examined patterns of geographic variation within Polypedates leucomystax using multivariate statistical analyzes of 14 morphological characters measured from 146 specimens obtained from Sumatra, Java, Kalimantan, and Sulawesi. Discriminant analysis revealed ten morphological characters and found that the Sulawesi population is morphologically distinct from all others considered. Following the Evolutionary Species Concept, we describe the Sulawesi population as a new species in P. leucomystax species complex.

Specific separation of Polypedates braueri (Vogt, 1911) from P. megacephalus (Hallowell, 1861) (Amphibia: Anura: Rhacophoridae)

The Taiwan population of the Polypedates leucomystax complex has been assigned to P. megacephalus, which was originally described from Hong Kong. The Taiwan and Hong Kong populations, however, are markedly differentiated in DNA sequences, and advertisement call and morphological characteristics. The Taiwan population is therefore regarded as a distinct species, for which the name P. braueri (Vogt 1911) is available. Since the holotype of P. braueri was not designated, a lectotype is chosen among the nine syntypes examined.

Phylogeography and historical demography of Polypedates leucomystax in the islands of Indonesia and the Philippines: Evidence for recent human-mediated range expansion?

Southeast Asia’s widespread species offer unique opportunities to explore the effects of geographical barriers to dispersal on patterns of vertebrate lineage diversification. We analyzed mitochondrial gene sequences (16S rDNA) from a geographically widespread sample of 266 Southeast Asian tree frogs, including 244 individuals of Polypedates leucomystax and its close relatives. Our expectation was that lineages on island archipelagos would exhibit more substantial geographic structure, corresponding to the geological history of terrestrial connectivity in this region, compared to the Asian mainland. Contrary to predictions, we found evidence of numerous highly divergent lineages from a limited area on the Asian mainland, but fewer lineages with shallower divergences throughout oceanic islands of the Philippines and Indonesia. Surprisingly and in numerous instances, lineages in the archipelagos span distinct biogeographical provinces. Phylogeographic analyses identified four major haplotype clades; summary statistics, mismatch distributions, and Bayesian coalescent inference of demography provide support for recent range expansion, population growth, and/or admixture in the Philippine and some Sulawesi populations. We speculate that the current range of P. leucomystax in Southeast Asia is much larger now than in the recent past. Conversion of forested areas to monoculture agriculture and transportation of agricultural products between islands may have facilitated unprecedented population and range expansion in P. leucomystax throughout thousands of islands in the Philippine and Indonesian archipelagos.

A Note on the Amphibian Fauna at Pantai Melawi Bachok, Kelantan

Five species of amphibians were found at Melawi, Bachok, Kelantan. Kaloula pulchra, Fejervarya limnocharis and Duttaphrynus melanostictus were the predominant species. Only a single individual of Polypedates leucomystax and an exotic species Hoplobatrachus rugulosus respectively was also found here. ABSTRAK Lima spesies amfibia dijumpai di Melawi Bachok, Kelantan. Kaloula pulchra, Fejervarya limnocharis dan Duttaphrynus melanostictus adalah spesies yang paling kerap ditemui dan masing-masing satu individu Polypedates leucomystax dan spesies eksotik Hoplobatrachus rugulosus dijumpai di kawasan ini. (Keywords: anurans, sandy habitat, bioindicator, Kelantan.)

Amphibians of Lublin

The occurrence of amphibians in Lublin city (South-East Poland) was studied in the years1998–2006. At 33 localities, including all water bodies in the Lublin area, 12 taxons of amphibians were found. Common frog Rana temporaria was most frequently observed in studied water bodies (84.7% of all locations). The results indicate that the rarest and extremely threatened with extinction species are: crested newt Triturus cristatus and common tree frog Hyla arborea.

Reproductive variation corresponding to breeding season length in three tropical frog species

Abstract:Several South-East Asian anuran species can breed year-round near the equator (due to abundant rainfall in all months in Singapore, for example) but are limited to a 6-mo breeding season in other areas (including central Thailand). In order to investigate the extent to which such differences in breeding season length are associated with differences in reproductive measures such as clutch size, reproduction of three common species,Polypedates leucomystax,Microhyla heymonsiandHylarana erythraea, was compared in Singapore and Thailand over a 2-y period. All three species produce nearly twice as many eggs per clutch in seasonal environments compared with aseasonal environments, although annual fecundity may be similar in both environments. InPolypedates leucomystax, increased clutch size and volume are associated with larger female size, but in the other two species female size is unchanged with respect to latitude. InH. erythraea, the increased clutch size in Thailand was observed early in the breeding season; later clutches were not significantly different between sites. Collectively, these data suggest that these widespread species have adapted to shortened breeding season length by increasing clutch size.

Estimation of the Origin of Polypedates leucomystax (Amphibia: Anura: Rhacophoridae) Introduced to the Ryukyu Archipelago, Japan

We attempted to estimate the origin of the exotic frog Polypedates leucomystax in the Ryukyu Archipelago. This species was first found in 1964 just in front of the U.S. military base at Kadena on Okinawajima Island and currently has established feral populations on more than 20 islands. We conducted phylogenetic analyses using mitochondrial DNA sequences of the cytochrome b gene. Samples of P. leucomystax from five islands of the Ryukyus had a single haplotype, which was identical to that of a Philippine sample but quite different from haplotypes of Vietnamese samples. Samples of P. megacephalus from Taiwan formed a clade different from the P. leucomystax clade. From these results, P. leucomystax in the Ryukyus seems to have originated through accidental transportation of very few individuals with military cargo from somewhere around the Philippines.

Amphibian road mortality in Europe: a meta-analysis with new data from Poland

While the increasing vehicular traffic is widely suspected to play a role in the worldwide amphibian population decline, the research of amphibian road mortality is scarce, fragmented, fraught with methodological problems, and largely inconclusive. As the first attempt at a synthesis, we analyzed all available data on amphibian mortality in Europe and combined them with four previously unpublished surveys conducted by us. Based on our recalculation of road-kill counts in terms of species-specific road-kill recordability, we conclude that, in lowland Central Europe, the common toads, Bufo bufo, are the most common victims of vehicular traffic in suburban landscapes, while the common frogs, Rana temporaria and Triturus newts, prevail in rural landscapes. The green frogs also tend to be more frequent in rural areas. Common tree frogs, Hyla arborea, are unexpectedly rare in the road-kill record despite their terrestrial and migratory habits. In consideration of problems with obtaining accurate amphibian population estimates, we further propose the road kills-to-spawners ratio (R/S) as a working measure of the impact of road mortality on a local population. While the R/S ratio may not reflect the losses to an entire local amphibian population, it is free of the errors of whole-population estimates, which are notoriously difficult for amphibians. When corrected for species-specific road-kill recordability, most results suggest that the impact of roads on newts may have been underestimated and that the impact on common frog populations may be higher than on those of common toads.

Relationship of Endangered Amphibians to Landscape Disturbance

Abstract: We examined the density of 2 endangered amphibians, natterjack toads (Bufo calamita) and yellow‐bellied toads (Bombina variegata), in 150 breeding pools at each of 2 military training areas in the German state of Bavaria. We selected pools to ensure a wide range of observable ground disturbance resulting from military vehicular traffic during cross‐country maneuvers. Both species exhibited significant affinity for pools with high levels of ground disturbance. Natterjack toads preferred pools with 80–100% ground disturbance; yellow‐bellied toads preferentially occupied pools with 40–100% ground disturbance. Pools occupied by the target species were characterized by higher levels of bare ground and minimal vegetation. Among other observed amphibians, European edible frogs (Rana esculenta) preferred pools with ≤60% ground disturbance, less bare ground, more vegetative cover, and disturbance >2 years old. Common tree frogs (Hyla arborea), smooth newts (Triturus vulgaris), and alpine newts (T. alpestris) showed no preference for level of disturbance; densities were correlated to parameters apparently unrelated to disturbance. The habitat mosaic created by the heterogeneous nature of military training disturbance may help explain the high biodiversity that often characterizes military training areas. Preservation of native biodiversity is dependent on maintaining an appropriate disturbance regime that, in turn, maintains a habitat mosaic conducive to the presence of native species adapted to a broad disturbance—succession continuum. (JOURNAL OF WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT 72(3):738–744; 2008)

Recent Records of Alien Anurans on the Pacific Island of Guam

Eight anuran species were recorded for the first time in Guam in the period May 2003–December 2005, all apparently the result of arrivals to the island since 2000. Three of the eight species (Rana guentheri, Polypedates megacephalus, and Eleutherodactylus planirostris) had well-established breeding populations by 2005. A further three (Fejervarya cf. limnocharis, Fejervarya cancrivora, and Microhyla pulchra) were recorded from a number of individuals, but it is not known whether these species have established breeding populations. Two species (Kaloula pulchra and Eleutherodactylus coqui) appear to be incidental transportations to the island that have not established. Before 2003, five anuran species, all introductions, had been recorded from Guam. Three of these, Polypedates leucomystax, Pseudacris regilla, and Kaloula picta, were detected on Guam in incoming cargo but destroyed. Two species established: Bufo marinus was deliberately introduced and the Australian hylid Litoria fallax was probably an accidental introduction. Successful establishment of anurans on Guam has increased the risk of frog introductions to nearby islands. By providing additional food sources for the brown tree snake (Boiga irregularis), anuran introductions have increased the chance that B. irregularis might substantially increase in numbers and in turn increase the risk of the snake being accidentally transported to other islands.

Multiple pathways for invasion of anurans on a Pacific island

ABSTRACTSince 1937, thirteen species of non‐indigenous anurans have made their way to Guam. Of these, at least six have established breeding populations. Various pathways led to the introduction of these species to the island. The only anuran intentionally introduced wasChaunus marinus(formerlyBufo marinus), which was brought to Guam as a biocontrol agent.Kaloula picta, K. pulchra, Polypedates leucomystax, and probablyLitoria fallaxarrived as stowaways via maritime or air‐transport vessels.Eleutherodactylus coquiandEuhyas(formerlyEleutherodactylus)planirostrisappear to have entered Guam through the horticultural trade. Specimens ofPseudacris regillawere found among agricultural products and Christmas trees. Five species have been transported to Guam via the aquacultural trade. The importation of tilapia, milkfish, and white shrimp from China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, and the Philippines was associated with the introduction to Guam ofFejervarya cancrivora, F. limnocharissensu lato,Microhyla pulchra, Polypedates megacephalus, andSylvirana guentheri(formerlyRana guentheri). Presently, no quarantine or containment guidelines have been established for Guam's aquacultural industry.