Polymer Systems Research Articles

Dual-catalyst effect on the molecular weight enhancement of polyfurfuryl alcohol resin and stability

This study advances furan chemistry by synthesising high-molecular-weight polyfurfuryl alcohol (PFA) resin (Mw = 118,959 g/mol) from furfuryl alcohol (FA) using a co-catalytic system, compared to conventional single-catalytic methods. Unlike traditional single-catalyst approaches, our method significantly increases the molecular weight of the resulting PFA, as confirmed by gel permeation chromatography (GPC), which shows a molecular weight increase of up to 60%. The dual-catalyst system also enhances the thermal stability of the resin, with thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) revealing a higher decomposition temperature (over 100 °C) compared to PFA synthesised using a single catalyst. Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy further corroborate the structural integrity and successful polymerisation of furfuryl alcohol under these conditions. The co-catalytic approach uses acetic acid as the catalytic precursor and hydrochloric acid (HCl) as the primary catalyst, allowing controlled polymerisation and achieving higher molecular weight while maintaining processability. Comprehensive characterisation reveals that the resulting PFA resin has a highly irregular chain structure with increased chain packing, enhancing its properties. The synthesised PFA shows excellent shelf life, remaining stable for over six months without forming a hard, insoluble solid when stored at room temperature. The higher molecular weight significantly improves the PFA resin’s mechanical properties, thermal stability, and chemical resistance, making it suitable for standalone moulded materials, composites, coatings, adhesives, and nanostructured carbons. The co-catalytic system elevates molecular weight and simplifies the synthesis process, making it more practical and reproducible. By leveraging furans' unique properties, this study opens new avenues for developing polymeric systems with superior attributes, contributing to sustainability and defossilisation in material science.

Experimental Study on Surfactant–Polymer Flooding After Viscosity Reduction for Heavy Oil in Matured Reservoir

An advanced enhanced oil recovery (EOR) method was investigated, employing a surfactant–polymer (SP) system in combination with a viscosity reducer for application in a heavy oil reservoir within the Haiwaihe Block, Liaohe Oilfield, in China. Significant advantages were observed through the combination of LPS-3 (an anionic surfactant) and OAB (a betaine surfactant) in reducing interfacial tension and enhancing emulsion stability, with the optimal results achieved at the ratio of 9:1. The BRH-325 polymer was found to exhibit superior viscosity enhancement, temperature resistance, and long-term stability. Graphene nanowedges were utilized as a viscosity reducer, leading to a viscosity reduction in heavy oil of 97.43%, while stability was maintained over a two-hour period. The efficacy of the combined system was validated through core flooding experiments, resulting in a recovery efficiency improvement of up to 32.7%. It is suggested that the integration of viscosity reduction and SP flooding could serve as a promising approach for improving recovery in mature heavy oil reservoirs, supporting a transition toward environmentally sustainable, non-thermal recovery methods.

Synergistic anion–π interactions in peptidomimetic polyethers

Anion-π interactions are crucial in various biological processes, such as enzyme catalysis and ion transport. Despite their significance, the exploitation of anion-π interactions in synthetic polymer systems remains underexplored. This study investigates anion-π interactions using chemically well-defined peptidomimetics guided by the composition of mussel foot proteins. Specifically, polyether-based polymers were designed utilizing two functional epoxide monomers-catechol acetonide glycidyl ether and 4,4-dimethyl-2-oxazoline glycidyl ether-to mimic the key amino acids 3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine and aspartic acid, respectively. A surface forces apparatus was employed to study the anion-π interaction between the polymers, considering the effects of relative monomer composition and pH conditions. The maximum cohesion energy of 15.0 mJ/m2 was observed at an equimolar monomer composition at pH 7. Incorporating a phenyl group instead of the catechol group and introducing competing anions confirmed the dominant role of anion-π interactions. This study highlights the significance of anion-π interactions, posing a high potential in the design and synthesis of functional materials.

Box–Behnken based furosemide-nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) delivery system for improving oral bioavailability

Objective The fabrication of furosemide (FSM) with enhanced oral bioavailability and encapsulation was achieved using a nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) drug delivery system. Significance The uniform drug distribution is a barrier due to its low dose. The lipid-based delivery system was selected based on its poor solubility and permeability, limiting its poor partitioning and solubility in water-based polymeric delivery systems. The lipophilicity of the FSM makes it favorable to partition with triglyceride-based Compritol 888 ATO and oleic acid with minimized drug expulsion, high drug payload, and sustained release over extended time frames. Methods The Organic and aqueous phases of the microemulsion were stabilized using Tween 80, a hydrophilic surfactant. Box-Behnken design-based optimization was done using alteration in various formulation variables to obtain nano-formulation with the lowest particle size and polydispersity, maximal zeta potential and entrapment efficiency. Results Design-Expert yielded several optimized formulations with the desirability function. Maximum desirability was obtained at a particle size of around 178 nm, a surface charge of −19.6 mV, and an EE of above 85%. The in vitro release profile depicted 86.5% of cumulative release after 24 h whereas, in vivo pharmacokinetic study revealed an increase in Cmax from 0.48 µg/mL (FSM-Suspension) to 0.77 µg/mL (FSM NLCs) to increase the bioavailability to approx. 241% in FSM NLCs. The half-life escalation demonstrated that the residence time of the nanoparticles prolonged at the physiologic pH. Conclusions FSM-NLCs exhibited sustained release over a prolonged period, improved residence time in the body, and their action was prolonged.

Porous nonwoven calendered fabrics (membranes) based on electrospun prepolymers of modified polyimides

AbstractThe article presents data on the method of obtaining porous nonwoven polyimide fabrics (membranes), their deformation and strength characteristics, heat resistance, and surface properties. The membranes are produced as a result of a multistep processing of copoly(urethane‐imides) prepolymers that includes the synthesis of copoly(urethane‐amiс acids) of a given chemical composition, the molding of nonwoven fabrics (mats) by electrodeposition of copoly(urethane‐amic acids), the compaction of the volumetric structure of electrodeposited nonwoven fabrics by calendering on hot rollers, the thermal cyclization (imidization) of amic acid units of copolymers during calendering to form imides, and the controlled selective thermal destruction of the urethane groups in the copolymers conditioning the transition from poly(urethane‐imides) to polyimides, which is accompanied by the formation of pores in nonwoven polyimide fabrics, resulting in porous polyimide webs with specific properties. In the synthesis of the polymers studied, polycaprolactone diol, 2,4‐toluene diisocyanate, 4,4′‐oxydianiline, pyromellitic dianhydride, and 3,3′,4,4′‐oxydiphthalic anhydride were used. The polymers were characterized using X‐ray, 1H NMR spectroscopy, thermogravimetric analysis, differential scanning calorimetry, dynamic mechanical analysis, and scanning electron spectroscopy. The deformation and strength properties of the nonwoven polyimide fabrics were also determined. Chemical composition of the synthesized polymer systems and the conditions for creating porous polyimide nonwoven fabrics influence the physical properties of the resulting fabrics. Porous polyimide nonwoven fabrics hold promise for the development of advanced filtration materials with enhanced strength, heat resistance, and resistance to aggressive amide solvents, which could be used in the pharmaceutical and biotechnology industries. The nonwoven fabrics are based on copoly(urethane imides) in terms of dimethylformamide (DMF) permeability and phthalocyanine rejection with a diameter of 240 nm. The DMF permeability was 280 kg/m2 h bar, the phthalocyanine rejection was 98%.Highlights Nonwoven poly(urethane‐amic acid) materials were obtained by electrodeposition. Nonwovens were rolled at high temperatures and pressure. The materials were compacted and acquired the structure of poly(urethane‐imides). Porous polyimide materials were obtained by annealing poly(urethane‐imides). The obtained materials have the properties of ultrafiltration membranes.

Flocculation Mechanism and Microscopic Statics Analysis of Polyacrylamide Gel in Underwater Cement Slurry

Zeta potential testing, Fourier infrared spectroscopy, and total organic carbon analysis were employed in this manuscript to explore the flocculation mechanism of polyacrylamide (PAM) on slurry with a high content of polycarboxylate ether (PCE). Through the combination of assessments of chemical bond shifts, adsorption indicators, and intrinsic viscosity of high-molecular-weight polymer systems, the microscale flocculation mechanisms of different PAM dosages in cement suspensions were elucidated, showcasing stages of “adsorption–lubrication–entanglement”. Initially (PAM < 0.3%), with PAM introduction, the polymer primarily underwent adsorption interactions, including hydrogen bonding between the ester group, amine group, and water molecules; chelation between the ester group and Ca2+ and Al3+ on the cement surface; and bridging between PAM’s long-chain structure and cement particles. As the PAM content increased, the cement particles’ adsorption capacity saturated (PAM < 0.67%). The entropy loss of polymer conformation could not be offset by adsorption energy, leading to its exclusion from the interface and depletion attractive forces. Slurry movement shifted from inter-particle motion to high-molecular-weight polymer sliding in interstitial fluid, forming a lubrication effect. With further PAM content no less than 0.67%, the polymer solution reached a critical entanglement concentration, and the contact of the rotation radius of the long-chain molecules led to entanglement domination. By introducing bridging adsorption, depletion attraction, and entanglement forces, the cohesion of cement-based polymer suspensions was subsequently determined. The results showed a linear correlation between cohesion and PAM concentration raised to powers of 0.30, 1.0, and 0.75 at different interaction stages, and a multiscale validation from microscopic flocculation mechanisms to macroscopic performance was finally completed through a comparative analysis with macroscopic anti-washout performance.

New insights into Notch signaling as a crucial pathway of pancreatic cancer stem cell behavior by chrysin-polylactic acid-based nanocomposite.

Pancreatic cancer is an extremely deadly illness for which there are few reliable treatments. Recent research indicates that malignant tumors are highly variable and consist of a tiny subset of unique cancer cells, known as cancer stem cells (CSCs), which are responsible for the beginning and spread of tumors. These cells are typically identified by the expression of specific cell surface markers. A population of pancreatic cancer stem cells with aberrantly active developmental signaling pathways has been identified in recent studies of human pancreatic tumors. Among these Notch signaling pathway has been identified as a key regulator of CSCs self-renewal, making it an attractive target for therapeutic intervention. Chrysin-loaded polylactic acid (PLA) as polymeric nanoparticles systems have been growing interest in using as platforms for improved drug delivery. This review aims to explore innovative strategies for targeted therapy and optimized drug delivery in pancreatic CSCs by manipulating the Notch pathway and leveraging PLA-based drug delivery systems. Furthermore, we will assess the capability of PLA nanoparticles to enhance the bioavailability and effectiveness of gemcitabine in pancreatic cancer cells. The insights gained from this review have the potential to contribute to the development of novel treatment approaches that combine targeted therapy with advanced drug delivery utilizing biodegradable polymeric nanoparticles.

From Vision Correction to Drug Delivery: Unraveling the Potential of Therapeutic Contact Lens.

Contact lenses (CLs) have become an essential tool in ocular drug delivery, providing effective treatment options for specific eye conditions. In recent advancements, Therapeutic CLs (TCLs) have emerged as a promising approach for maintaining therapeutic drug concentrations on the eye surface. TCLs offer unique attributes, including prolonged wear and a remarkable ability to enhance the bioavailability of loaded medications by more than 50%, thus gaining widespread usage. They have proven beneficial in pain management, medication administration, corneal healing, and protection. To achieve sustained drug delivery from TCLs, researchers are exploring diverse systems, such as polymeric nanoparticulate systems, lipidic systems, and the incorporation of agents like vitamin E or rate-limiting polymers. However, despite breakthrough successes, certain challenges persist, including ensuring drug stability during processing and manufacturing, controlling release kinetics, and biomaterial interaction, reducing protein adhesion, and addressing drug release during packaging and storage etc. While TCLs have shown overall success in treating corneal and ocular surface disorders, careful consideration of potential issues and contraindications is vital. This review offers an insightful perspective on the critical aspects that need to be addressed regarding TCLs, with a specific emphasis on their advantages and limitations.

Advanced predicting of conductivity for carbon nanofiber polymer systems: Incorporating of nanofiber, interphase, and tunneling impacts

Advanced predicting of conductivity for carbon nanofiber polymer systems: Incorporating of nanofiber, interphase, and tunneling impacts

Nanoparticles in Renal Hypertension Therapy: Advances, Mechanisms, and Future Perspectives

Renal hypertension, a secondary form of hypertension stemming from kidney dysfunction, poses significant health burdens due to its association with cardiovascular complications and end-stage renal disease (Goldblatt, 1934; Bakris, 2021). Current therapeutic strategies often rely on antihypertensive drugs, but these are limited by suboptimal bioavailability, systemic side effects, and lack of targeted action (Go et al., 2013). These limitations underscore the need for innovative treatment modalities. Nanotechnology, particularly nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems have surfaced as an innovative approach revolutionary approach to address these challenges by enabling precise, targeted therapy with improved efficacy and reduced adverse effects (Langer & Peppas, 2021). Nanoparticles exhibit unique properties such as the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect, customizable surface modifications, and the capacity to deliver therapeutic agents directly to renal tissues have made nanoparticles a promising approach (Maeda, 2015). Significant progress in this domain includes the creation of lipid-based carriers, polymeric systems, metallic nanostructures, and inorganic nanoplatforms. Among these, lipid-based systems, including liposomes and solid lipid nanoparticles, stand out for their versatility and efficiency, facilitating effective drug encapsulation and sustained release, while polymeric carriers like PLGA nanoparticles enhance drug stability and control release profiles (Wang et al., 2018; Patel et al., 2020). Metallic nanoparticles, including gold and silver systems, offer the advantage of anti-inflammatory and antioxidative properties, while mesoporous silica nanoparticles enable high drug loading capacity and renal-targeted delivery (Zhang et al., 2021; Xiao et al., 2022). Clinical translation of these technologies remains a work in progress, yet preclinical studies reveal their promise in hypertension management. Functionalized nanoparticles delivering ACE inhibitors, angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs), and nitric oxide donors have demonstrated superior outcomes in animal models by improving renal perfusion and endothelial function while reducing systemic toxicity (Singh et al., 2019; Zhou et al., 2020). Further integration of artificial intelligence and computational modeling is paving the way for optimized nanoparticle design, enhancing their therapeutic precision and scalability (Farokhzad et al., 2017). Despite promising advancements, significant challenges persist. These include concerns regarding biocompatibility, toxicity, large-scale manufacturability, and compliance with regulatory requirements (Kinnear et al., 2021). Bridging these gaps through interdisciplinary collaboration and innovative research is imperative for successful clinical translation. Nanoparticle systems hold immense potential for transforming renal hypertension treatment, providing safer and more effective therapeutic options while minimizing healthcare burdens associated with chronic disease management.

Beyond Surfactants: Janus Particles for Functional Interfaces and Coatings.

Janus particles (JPs), initially introduced as soft matter, have evolved into a distinctive class of materials that set them apart from traditional surfactants, dispersants, and block copolymers. This mini-review examines the similarities and differences between JPs and their molecular counterparts to elucidate the unique properties of JPs. Key studies on the assembly behavior of JPs in bulk phases and at interfaces are reviewed, highlighting their unique ability to form diverse, complex structures. The superior interfacial stability and tunable amphiphilicity of JPs make them highly effective emulsifiers and dispersants, particularly in emulsion polymerization systems. Beyond these applications, JPs demonstrate immense potential as coating materials, facilitating the development of eco-friendly, anti-icing, and antifouling coatings. A comparative discussion with zwitterionic polymers also highlights the distinctive advantages of each system. This review emphasizes that while JPs mimic some of the behaviors of small molecular surfactants, they also open doors to entirely new applications, making them indispensable as next-generation functional materials.

Unlocking hexafluoroisopropanol as a practical anion-binding catalyst for living cationic polymerization.

Living cationic polymerization (LCP) is a classical technique for precision polymer synthesis; however, due to the high sensitivity of cationic active species towards chain-transfer/termination events, it is notoriously difficult to control polymerization under mild conditions, which inhibits its progress in advanced materials engineering. Here, we unlock a practical anion-binding catalytic strategy to address the historical dilemma in LCP. Our experimental and mechanistic studies demonstrate that commercially accessible hexafluoroisopropanol (HFIP), when used in high loading, can create higher-order HFIP aggregates to tame dormant-active species equilibrium via non-covalent anion-binding principle, in turninducingdistinctive polymerization kinetics behaviors that grant efficient chain propagation while minimizing competitive side reactions. This unique control mechanismdelivers unprecedented polymerization activity and controllability across various electron-rich vinyl monomers under mild conditions, and provides easy access to high molecular weight polymers, block copolymers, and end-functionalized telechelic polymers. Also, the minimalistic structure of HFIP coupled with its convenient removal and recycle renders this approach easy to scale up, without concern for cost, sustainability and complicated work-up processes associated with previous systems. This study presents another universal and sustainable strategy for cationic macromolecular engineering, and will also stimulate further exploration of innovative non-covalent catalysis that enables more challenging living polymerization systems.

Unlocking hexafluoroisopropanol as a practical anion‐binding catalyst for living cationic polymerization

Living cationic polymerization (LCP) is a classical technique for precision polymer synthesis; however, due to the high sensitivity of cationic active species towards chain‐transfer/termination events, it is notoriously difficult to control polymerization under mild conditions, which inhibits its progress in advanced materials engineering. Here, we unlock a practical anion‐binding catalytic strategy to address the historical dilemma in LCP. Our experimental and mechanistic studies demonstrate that commercially accessible hexafluoroisopropanol (HFIP), when used in high loading, can create higher‐order HFIP aggregates to tame dormant‐active species equilibrium via non‐covalent anion‐binding principle, in turn inducing distinctive polymerization kinetics behaviors that grant efficient chain propagation while minimizing competitive side reactions. This unique control mechanism delivers unprecedented polymerization activity and controllability across various electron‐rich vinyl monomers under mild conditions, and provides easy access to high molecular weight polymers, block copolymers, and end‐functionalized telechelic polymers. Also, the minimalistic structure of HFIP coupled with its convenient removal and recycle renders this approach easy to scale up, without concern for cost, sustainability and complicated work‐up processes associated with previous systems. This study presents another universal and sustainable strategy for cationic macromolecular engineering, and will also stimulate further exploration of innovative non‐covalent catalysis that enables more challenging living polymerization systems.

Synthesis and Polymerization of Thiophene-Bearing 2-Oxazolines and 2-Oxazines.

Intrinsically conductive polymers have garnered a great deal of attention for use in medical and bioelectronic applications. Despite this, challenges associated with the mechanical stability, processability, and fabrication of conducting polymers have limited their utility. To circumvent these limitations, thiophene substituted 2-oxazolines (2Ox)and 2-oxazines (2Ozi) are introduced, which can be polymerized to form a thermally stable and potentially melt-processable polymers as precursors for conductive polymers. A series of such monomers are synthesized and yields above 50% are obtained for gram scale reactions. The monomers can subsequently be polymerized using standard cationic ring-opening methods to yield thiophene-bearing poly(2-oxazoline)s (POx) and poly(2-oxazine)s (POzi) with narrow to moderate dispersity. The polymers exhibit glass transition temperatures between 50 °C and 100 °C and thermal stability beyond 250 °C. Moreover, random copolymers can be produced by introducing aliphatic 2-oxazolinesduring polymer synthesis, which facilitates tailoring of the polymer properties and may enable new applications in melt extrusion printing or electrospinning of precursors for conducting polymer systems. Overall, a facile approach is described for the synthesis of thiophene-functionalized monomers and polymers, providing covalent integration of thiophenes that opens new avenues toward the generation of functional and stimuli-responsive biomaterials.

Current State-of-the-Art and Perspectives in the Design and Application of Vitrimeric Systems

To fulfill the current circular economy concept, the academic and industrial communities are devoting significant efforts to plastic materials’ end-of-life. Unlike thermoplastics, which are easy to recover and re-valorize, recycling thermosets is still difficult and challenging. Conversely, because of their network structure, thermosetting polymer systems exhibit peculiar features that make these materials preferable for several applications where high mechanical properties, chemical inertness, and thermal stability, among others, are demanded. In this view, vitrimers have quite recently attracted the attention of the scientific community, as they can form dynamic covalent adaptive networks that provide the properties typical of thermosets while keeping the possibility of being processed (and, therefore, mechanically recycled) beyond a certain temperature. This review aims to provide an overview of vitrimers, elucidating their most recent advances and applications and posing some perspectives for the forthcoming years.

Preservation Strategies for Interfacial Integrity in Restorative Dentistry: A Non-Comprehensive Literature Review

The preservation of interfacial integrity in esthetic dental restorations remains a critical challenge, with hybrid layer degradation being a primary factor in restoration failure. This degradation is driven by a combination of host-derived enzymatic activity, including matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), bacterial proteases, and hydrolytic breakdown of the polymerized adhesive due to moisture exposure. This review examines the multifactorial mechanisms underlying hybrid layer degradation and presents current advancements in restorative materials aimed at counteracting these effects. Principal strategies include collagen preservation through the inhibition of enzymatic activity, the integration of antimicrobial agents to limit biofilm formation, and the use of ester-free, hydrolysis-resistant polymeric systems. Recent research highlights acrylamide-based adhesives, which exhibit enhanced resistance to acidic and enzymatic environments, as well as dual functionality in collagen stabilization. Furthermore, innovations in bioactive resins and self-healing materials present promising future directions for developing adhesives that actively contribute to long-term restoration stability. These findings underscore the importance of continuous advancements in adhesive technology to enhance the durability and clinical performance of dental restorations.

Light-Induced Transformation from Covalent to Supramolecular Polymer Networks.

Stimuli-responsive polymers have demonstrated significant potential in the development of smart materials due to their capacity to undergo targeted property changes in response to external physical or chemical stimuli. However, the scales of response in most existing stimuli-responsive polymer systems are mainly focused on three levels: functional units, chain conformations, or polymer topologies. Herein, we have developed a covalent polymer network (CPN) capable of converting into a supramolecular polymer network (SPN) within bulk materials directly at the scale of polymer network types. This transformation is enabled by specifically designed covalent moieties that upon UV exposure reveal quadruple hydrogen bonding sites, allowing the formation of a supramolecular network. This network-type transition from CPN to SPN induces pronounced intrinsic changes in material properties, including a substantially increased breaking elongation, lower Young's modulus, reduced fracture strength, and decreased creep resistance, marking a shift from a stable, rigid structure to a dynamic, adaptable one. These findings provide new insights into the design of advanced stimuli-responsive polymer materials through network-type transformations, opening new avenues for applications in smart and multifunctional materials.

All-solid Conductive Elastomers Bridging Mechanical Performance and Sustainability for Durable and Multifunctional Electronics.

The next generation of stretchable electronics seeks to integrate superior mechanical properties with sustainability and sensing stability. Ionically conductive and liquid-free elastomers have gained recognition as promising candidates, addressing the challenges of evaporation and leakage in gel-based conductors. In this study, a sustainable polymeric deep eutectic system is synergistically integrated with amino-terminated hyperbranched polyamide-modified fibers and aluminum ions, forming a conductive supramolecular network with significant improvements in mechanical performance. The elastomer exhibits remarkable tensile strength (6.69 MPa) and ultrahigh toughness (275.7 MJ/m3), capable of lifting loads 8300 times its own weight and demonstrated notch-insensitive properties. The elastomer also possessed degradable and stepwise recyclable properties, supporting its sustainability. Its excellent mechanical performance and conductivity enable stable signal output for multifunctional electronics. A wearable strain sensor is developed, demonstrating high sensitivity (gauge factor up to 4.52) and reliable repeatability under strain. Furthermore, a durable triboelectric nanogenerator is also fabricated, delivering stable signal output over one month and demonstrating strong potential for tactile sensing across various contact materials, making it highly promising for future human-machine interaction applications. This work offers feasible strategy for the design of solid elastomer-based durable electronics and highlights the potential for multifunctional applications.

Fabrication of Functional Polymers with Gradual Release of a Bioactive Precursor for Agricultural Applications

Biodegradable and biocompatible polymeric materials and stimulus-responsive hydrogels are widely used in the pharmaceutical, agricultural, biomedical, and consumer sectors. The effectiveness of these formulations depends significantly on the appropriate selection of polymer support. Through chemical or enzymatic hydrolysis, these materials can gradually release bioactive agents, enabling controlled drug release. The objective of this work is to synthesize, characterize, and apply two controlled-release polymeric systems, focusing on the release of a phyto-pharmaceutical agent (herbicide) at varying pH levels. The copolymers were synthesized via free radical polymerization in solution, utilizing tetrahydrofuran (THF) as the organic solvent and benzoyl peroxide (BPO) as the initiator, without the use of a cross-linking agent. Initially, the herbicide was grafted onto the polymeric chains, and its release was subsequently tested across different pH environments in a heterogeneous phase using an ultrafiltration (UF) system. The development of these two controlled-release polymer systems aimed to measure the herbicide’s release across different pH levels. The goal is to adapt these materials for agricultural use, enhancing soil quality and promoting efficient water usage in farming practices. The results indicate that the release of the herbicide from the conjugate systems exceeded 90% of the bioactive compound after 8 days at pH 10 for both systems. Furthermore, the two polymeric systems demonstrated first-order kinetics for herbicide release in aqueous solutions at different pH levels. The kinetic constant was found to be higher at pH 7 and 10 compared to pH 3. These synthetic hydrogels are recognized as functional polymers suitable for the sustained release of herbicides in agricultural applications.

Parity–time-reversal symmetry-breaking transitions in polymeric systems

Parity–time-reversal symmetry-breaking transitions in polymeric systems