Polymeric Membranes Research Articles

Ultrathin Free‐Standing Porous Aromatic Framework Membranes for Efficient Anion Transport

AbstractPorous aromatic frameworks (PAFs) show promising potential in anionic conduction due to their high stability and customizable functionality. However, the insolubility of most PAFs presents a significant challenge in their processing into membranes and subsequent applications. In this study, continuous PAF membranes with adjustable thickness were successfully created using liquid‐solid interfacial polymerization. The rigid backbone and the stable C−C coupling endow PAF membrane with superior chemical and dimensional stabilities over most conventional polymer membranes. Different quaternary ammonium functionalities were anchored to the backbone through flexible alkyl chains with tunable length. The optimal PAF membrane exhibited an OH− conductivity of 356.6 mS ⋅ cm−1 at 80 °C and 98 % relative humidity. Additionally, the PAF membrane exhibited outstanding alkaline stability, retaining 95 % of its OH− conductivity after 1000 hours in 1 M NaOH. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first application of PAF materials in anion exchange membranes, achieving the highest OH− conductivity and exceptional chemical/dimensional stability. This work provides the possibility for the potential of PAF materials in anionic conductive membranes.

Zeolite-Based Poly(vinylidene fluoride) Ultrafiltration Membrane: Characterization and Molecular Weight Cut-Off Estimation with Support Vector Regression Modelling.

Zeolite serves as a promising additive for enhancing the hydrophilicity of polymeric membranes, yet its utilization for bolstering the mechanical strength of the membrane remains limited. In this study, poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF) membranes were modified by incorporating various concentrations of zeolite (0.5-2 wt%) to improve not only their mechanical properties, but also other features for water filtration. Membranes with and without zeolite incorporation were fabricated via a dry-wet phase inversion technique, followed by the application of a series of characterization techniques in order to study their morphological structure, mechanical strength, and hydrophilicity. The membrane filtration performance for each membrane was evaluated based on pure water flux and Bovine Serum Albumin (BSA) rejection. Field-Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy (FESEM) images revealed a dense, microvoid-free structure across all of the PVDF membranes, contributing to a high pristine PVDF membrane tensile strength of 14 MPa. The addition of 0.5 wt% zeolite significantly improved the tensile strength up to 19.4 MPa. Additionally, the incorporation of 1 wt% zeolite into PVDF membrane yielded improvements in membrane hydrophilicity (contact angle of 67.84°), pure water flux (63.49% increase), and high BSA rejection (95.76%) compared to pristine PVDF membranes. To further improve the characterization of the zeolite-modified PVDF membranes, the Support Vector Regression (SVR) model was adopted to estimate the molecular weight cut off (MWCO) of the membranes. A coefficient of determination (R2) value of 0.855 was obtained, suggesting that the SVR model predicted the MWCO accurately. The findings of this study showed that the utilization of zeolite is promising in enhancing both the mechanical properties and separation performance of PVDF membranes for application in ultrafiltration processes.

Simple and complex sorption−solution isotherms for membrane polymers: A statistical thermodynamic fluctuation theory

Simple, site-specific adsorption isotherm models, such as GAB and other generalizations of BET, fit strikingly well to experimental isotherms of simple shapes for glassy and rubbery polymers. However, the structures of dense polymers do not necessarily resemble the unrestricted layer-by-layer adsorption mechanism on one type of sorption site assumed by these models. Since polymers contain micropores, sorptive likely (ad)sorbs on the internal surfaces of the free (accessible) volume voids, and dissolves in the polymer phase. While the empirical dual mode sorption model and its variants address this duality, other common models assume chiefly only one of the two mechanisms. Moreover, the simplified models do not fit complex isotherms, such as those for alcohols and poly[(trimethylsilyl)propyne] (PTMSP). The statistical thermodynamic fluctuation theory is adopted here to capture the sorption-solution duality consistently even for the complex isotherms. The statistical thermodynamic ABC isotherm derived from this theory involves the sorbate-sorbent and mono-, di-, and tri-sorbate interactions expressed by sorbate number correlations. This work shows that BET, GAB, dual-mode sorption model, Flory-Huggins, and ENSIC models are special cases of the ABC isotherm. The isotherm multiplicativity principle has been derived from the number fluctuation relationship to model complex isotherms.

Advances and Feasibility of Biocatalytic Technologies for Dye Removal

The expanding dye and dye-related industries have led to the production of large volumes of dye-containing wastewater streams. Without adequate treatment, the wastewater could pollute the environment and give rise to health concerns. Biocatalytic technologies provide a channel of treating the wastewater. These technologies involve immobilizing dye-degrading enzymes particularly laccase and peroxidase, and microorganisms on or in suitable supports to enhance their activities, stability, efficiency, and recyclability. This review provides the latest advances in biocatalytic technologies for dye removal and their feasibility. Based on this review, laccase has been immobilized on supports comprising PEDOT-PPy-COOH/Pt, nanocellulose from quinoa husks, calcium alginate, delignified spent grain, polymeric membrane, and metal-organic frameworks to treat different dyes with efficiencies ranging from 39% to 100%. Peroxidase has been immobilized on calcium alginate, Fe3O4 nanoparticles, cationic maize starch, and graphene oxide-SiO2 for treatment of various dyes with efficiencies in the range of 40–100%. The dye-degrading ability of azoreductase is often harnessed through immobilization of microbial cells which contain multiple enzymes in them and are frequently able to decolorize more than 90% of the dyes tested. An immobilized azoreductase has been successfully produced but showed lower dye-degrading efficiencies of 18.3–58.3%. The performance of biocatalysts can be affected by multiple factors, making optimization of the operating conditions important. The use of green support materials could reduce the cost of biocatalysts and the associated environmental concerns. A versatile biocatalyst or biocatalyst mixture is beneficial to degrade the complex pollutants in dye-containing wastewater.

Active Dendrite Suppression by Ferroelectric Membrane Separators in Rechargeable Batteries.

Anodic dendrite formation is a critical issue in rechargeable batteries and often leads to poor cycling stability and quick capacity loss. Prevailing strategies for dendrite suppression aim at slowing down the growth rate kinetically but still leaving possibilities for dendrite evolution over time. Herein, we report a complete dendrite elimination strategy using a mesoporous ferroelectric polymer membrane as the battery separator. The dendrite suppression is realized by spontaneously reversing the surface energetics for metal ion reduction at the protrusion front, where a positive piezoelectric polarization is generated and superimposed as the protrusion compresses the separator. This effect is demonstrated first in a Zn electroplating process, and further in Zn-Zn symmetric cells and Zn-NaV3O8·1.5H2O full cells, where the dendritic Zn anode surfaces are completely turned into featureless flat surfaces. Consequently, a substantially longer charging/discharging cycle is achieved. This study provides a promising pathway toward high-performance dendrite-free rechargeable batteries.

Mechanically stable polymer molecular sieve membranes with switchable functionality designed for high CO2 separation performance.

The development of high-performance membranes selective for carbon dioxide is critically important for advancing energy-efficient carbon dioxide capture technologies. Although molecular sieves have long been attractive membrane materials, turning them into practical membrane applications has been challenging. Here, we introduce an innovative approach for crafting a polymeric molecular sieve membrane to achieve outstanding carbon dioxide separation performance while upholding the mechanical stability. First, a polymer molecular sieve membrane having high gas permeability and mechanical stability was fabricated from a judiciously designed polymer that is solution-processable, hyper-cross-linkable, and functionalizable. Then, the carbon dioxide selectivity was fine-tuned by the subsequent introduction of various amine-based carriers. Among the diverse amines, polyethyleneimine stands out by functionalizing the larger pore region while preserving ultramicropores, leading to improved carbon dioxide/dinitrogen separation performance. The optimized membrane demonstrates exceptional carbon dioxide/dinitrogen separation performance, outperforming other reported polymer molecular sieve membranes and even competing favorably with most carbon molecular sieve membranes reported to date.

A New Planar Potentiometric Sensor for In Situ Measurements.

A new construction of a potentiometric sensor was introduced for the first time. It relies on the use of two membranes instead of one, as in the well-known coated-disc electrode. For this purpose, a new electrode body was constructed, including not one, but two glassy carbon discs covered with an ion-selective membrane. This solution allows for the sensor properties to be enhanced without using additional materials (layers or additives) on the membrane. The new construction is particularly useful for in situ measurements in environmental samples. Two ion-selective polymeric membranes were used, namely H+ and K+-selective membranes, to confirm the universality of the idea. The tests conducted included chronopotentiometric tests, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, and potentiometric measurements. The electrical and analytical parameters of the sensors were evaluated and compared for all tested electrodes to evaluate the properties of the planar electrode versus previously known constructions. Research has shown that the application of two membranes instead of one allows for the resistance of an electrode to be lowered and for the electrical capacitance to be elevated. Improving the electrical properties of an electrode resulted in the enhancement of its analytical properties. The pH measurement range of the planar electrode is 2-11, which is much wider in contrast to that of the single-membrane electrode. The linear range of the K+-selective planar electrode is wider than that of the coated-disc electrode and equals 10-6 to 10-1 M. The response time turned out to be a few seconds shorter, and the potential drift was smaller due to the application of an additional membrane in the electrode construction. This research creates a new opportunity to design robust potentiometric sensors, as the presented construction is universal and can be used to obtain electrodes selective to various ions.

Piezoelectric and Dielectric Electrospun Fluoropolymer Membranes for Oral Mucosa Regeneration: A Comparative Study.

Wound healing of the oral mucosa is an urgent problem in modern dental surgical practice. This research article presents and compares the findings of the investigations of the structural, physicochemical, and biological characteristics of two types of polymeric membranes used for the regeneration of oral mucosa. The membranes were prepared from poly(tetrafluoroethylene) (PTFE) and a copolymer of vinylidene fluoride and tetrafluoroethylene (VDF-TeFE) and analyzed via scanning electron microscopy, atomic force microscopy, X-ray diffraction analysis, and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. Investigation results obtained indicate that both types of membranes are composed of thin fibers: (0.57 ± 0.25) μm for PTFE membranes and (0.43 ± 0.14) μm for VDF-TeFE membranes. Moreover, the fibers of VDF-TeFE membranes exhibit distinct piezoelectric properties, which are confirmed by piezoresponse force microscopy and X-ray diffraction. Both types of membranes are hydrophobic: (139.7 ± 2.5)° for PTFE membranes and (133.5 ± 2.0)° for VDF-TeFE membranes. In vitro assays verify that both membrane types did not affect the growth and division of mice fibroblasts of the 3T3-L1 cell line, with a cell viability in the range of 88-101%. Finally, in vivo comparative experiments carried out using Wistar rats demonstrate that the piezoelectric VDF-TeFE membranes have a high ability to regenerate oral mucosa.

Computer vision-based measurement of pure- and mixed-gas swelling in polymer membranes: Individual and synergistic effects of configurational free volume and thermal rearrangement

Although polymer swelling (i.e., dilation) data are crucial to assess the long-term stability of polymer membranes and correct sorption isotherms for highly sorbing penetrants, the swelling propensity of new generation membranes exhibiting configurational free volume (i.e, triptycene units) has never been investigated. To fill this gap, in this paper we study pure and mixed-gas swelling of a series of thermally rearranged polybenzoxazoles (TPBOs) and their poly(o-hydroxyimide) precursors exhibiting systematically varied amount of configurational free volume. The individual and synergistic effects of configurational free volume and thermal rearrangement on the polymer swelling propensity are presented and discussed. To do so, we use a newly developed experimental approach based on computer vision, which is capable of correcting most of the limitations of traditional methods used to measure swelling and achieve superior accuracy. We show that thermally rearranged glassy polymers exhibiting configurational free volume exhibit better swelling resistance relative to conventional polymers. The fundamental origin of this behavior resides, as explained by the dual mode theory, on the fact that the Langmuir's mode swelling propensity in thermally rearranged triptycene-based polymers is much lower than in glassy polymers exhibiting only conformational free volume. Differences between pure-gas and mixed-gas induced swelling are also highlighted and discussed. Finally, a thorough investigation of the swelling measurement uncertainty and precision is provided and discussed, including an analysis of the major factors affecting experimental uncertainty.

Design of Modified Polymer Membranes Using Machine Learning.

Surface modification is an attractive strategy to adjust the properties of polymer membranes. Unfortunately, predictive structure-processing-property relationships between the modification strategies and membrane performance are often unknown. One possibility to tackle this challenge is the application of data-driven methods such as machine learning. In this study, we applied machine learning methods to data sets containing the performance parameters of modified membranes. The resulting machine learning models were used to predict performance parameters, such as the pure water permeability and the zeta potential of membranes modified with new substances. The predictions had low prediction errors, which allowed us to generalize them to similar membrane modifications and processing conditions. Additionally, machine learning methods were able to identify the impact of substance properties and process parameters on the resulting membrane properties. Our results demonstrate that small data sets, as they are common in materials science, can be used as training data for predictive machine learning models. Therefore, machine learning shows great potential as a tool to expedite the development of high-performance membranes while reducing the time and costs associated with the development process at the same time.

Introduction of an electrospun nanofibrous membrane incorporated by metal-organic framework-199 (MOF-199) with Lewis acid property for efficient extraction of sulfonamides in on-chip electromembrane extraction

In this study, a new supporting polymeric membrane having Lewis acid nature was introduced for immobilizing organic solvent in on-chip electromembrane extraction (on-chip EME). For this aim, a polymeric nanofibrous membrane incorporated by a copper based metal-organic framework (MOF-199), with coordinatively unsaturated metal sites and Lewis acid property, was prepared by electrospinning a mixture of polycaprolactone (PCL) and MOF-199. Based on the field emission scanning electron microscopy images, the obtained polymeric membrane consisted of intertwined nanofibers having empty space between the fibers which could provide a suitable place for immobilizing the organic solvent. To demonstrate remarkable extractability of the proposed membrane (PCL/MOF-199 nanofibers) via executing Lewis acid-base interactions, three sulfonamide drugs was selected as anionic polar analytes with Lewis base feature. The parameters affecting the extraction efficiency of the method were optimized through the experimental design method using the orthogonal and rotatable central composite design (CCD). Under optimum conditions, the extraction recoveries ranging from 35.5 to 71.2 %, the relative standard deviations (RSD%) less than 6.45 %, and the detection limits in the range of 0.2–0.5 μg L−1 were achieved. The comparison of the extraction efficiency of the on-chip EME method using the electrospun PCL/MOF-199 nanofibers and PCL nanofibers membranes indicated that the proposed membrane was more efficient for extraction of sulfonamides because of the significant Lewis acid-base interactions of sulfonamides with copper uncoordinated open sites in MOF-199. Finally, the performance of the proposed method for extraction and determination of sulfonamides in three real samples was assayed.

Pressure-assisted vacuum filtration fabrication of polymer membranes with enhanced selectivity for the separation of an ethanol/carbon dioxide mixture

The membrane performance and effectiveness of fabrication are significant factors that determine the industrialization of membranes. In this study, a pressure-assisted vacuum filtration method was proposed to fabricate a sub-100 nm thin composite membrane using a homemade polyamide for the separation of an ethanol/carbon dioxide (CO2) mixture. Because during bioethanol fermentation, a large amount of CO2 can be produced, forming fermentation tail gas with vaporized ethanol, which should be separated to recover ethanol and reduce greenhouse CO2 emissions. The fabrication conditions, including the size of the polymer coil and feed pressure, were investigated in detail. Characterization using a dynamic laser scatterometer and low-field nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) was conducted to reveal the membrane properties. The membrane performance obtained by the pressure-assisted vacuum filtration method was compared with that obtained by the solution casting method, which was demonstrated to be 40 % higher. Meanwhile, when a smaller pore size of the substrate was used, a 56 nm thick composite membrane was obtained with an ethanol/CO2 selectivity of 18 and an ethanol permeance of approximately 35000 GPU (1960 Barrer). Finally, the effects of the operating parameters, such as the feed concentration and stability, on the membrane performance were investigated. This study provides a valuable reference for the fabrication of ultrathin polymer membranes.

Polyaryl sulfone amine oxide membranes with adjustable pore and interesting “trade-off” effect

Creating advanced polymer membranes with adjustable pores for various separation methods has been challenging because of the lack of new materials with adaptable and reversible chemical structures. In this study, we designed membranes using polyarylene ether sulfone/amide tertiary amine (PAES/ATA) copolymerized with polyarylene ether sulfone and polyamide tertiary amine. These membranes incorporated amine oxide units into their molecular chains by oxidizing the TA unit in the PAES/ATA copolymer chain. Applying the oxidation process improved antifouling properties, with the oxidized membrane showing a permeance recovery rate (Frr) of 95.48 % and a total fouling ratio (Rt) of 9.35 %. These units also functioned as switches, altering their charge in different pH environments, thereby allowing pore size adjustment in the membranes. Notably, with the formation of amine oxide, these membranes exhibited properties distinct from the traditional “trade-off” effect, which is a persistent challenge in membrane technology development. The permeance and rejection rate of these membranes demonstrated the “simultaneous rise phenomenon” following a facile oxidation treatment to form amine oxide. This study presents a novel approach to develop membranes with new functional and tunable filtration capabilities, potentially applicable in various separation processes.

PVC plasticized membranes modified with Fe3O4 nanoparticles for potentiometric sensing of sulfate

Potentiometric sensing is one of the most wide spread platforms for analysis of aqueous solutions. The development of potentiometric sensors for hydrophilic anions such as sulfate, phosphate and bicarbonate is a challenging problem, since their high hydration energy results in a low affinity for non-polar polymer membranes – a standard material for potentiometric sensor production.In this study we propose a new type of polymeric sensor membranes for ion-selective sensors with pronounced selectivity to hydrophilic anions. The membranes are based on inorganic Fe3O4 nanoparticles (NP) embedded into plasticized poly(vinyl chloride). Six different formulations of membranes with various combinations of Fe3O4 nanoparticles and other membrane-active components were synthesized and characterized with a wide range of physico-chemical methods. Contact angle measurements, FTIR spectra, SEM and AFM imaging, magnetization hysteresis curves, ZFC/FC studies were performed. The obtained results proved the formation of nanocomposites and demonstrated a structure with “cavities” in membranes with embedded nanoparticles. Potentiometric sensitivity and selectivity of the developed sensors in aqueous solutions of SO42−, HPO42−, HCO3−, H2PO4−, NO3− and Cl−anions were studied. The developed sensors showed high sensitivity to sulfate ion (-22 mV/dec in the concentration range from 10−5 to 10−3 M) and low sensitivity to the typical interfering anions – chloride and nitrate (-14 mV/dec). The optimized sensor membrane composition demonstrated sulfate selectivity higher than that of commercially available ion-selective sensor formulations. The novel sensors were tested for quantification of SO42− in real samples of natural mineral water and the obtained content of sulfate was in a good agreement with the reference data (relative error < 3 %)

Formulation of a Novel Polymeric Hydrogel Membrane for Periodontal Tissue Regeneration Using Tricalcium Phosphate-Alginate Reinforcement.

The primary goal of periodontal therapy is to facilitate the regeneration of tissues damaged by periodontal disease. In recent years, there has been a growing utilization of guided tissue regeneration (GTR) membranes with bioabsorbable properties as these membranes are increasingly employed to guide the growth of gingival tissue away from the root surface. Both resorbable and non-resorbable membranes currently employed act as physical barriers, preventing the ingrowth of connective and epithelial tissues into the defect and thereby facilitating periodontal tissue regeneration. This study aimed to develop a polymeric hydrogel membrane reinforced with tricalcium phosphate (TCP)-alginate and assess its potential for periodontal regeneration. TCPnanoparticles were incorporated into the alginate mixture to form TCP alginate. Subsequently, the mixture was cross-linked with calcium chloride to produce a TCP-alginate polymeric hydrogel membrane. The membrane underwent hemocompatibility analysis, and also scanning electron microscopyand Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy analyses were done. The SEM analysis revealed granulations and a bonded thread-like structure in the membrane, indicative of favorable conditions for cell attachment necessary for periodontal regeneration. FTIR analysis showed characteristic peaks in the spectrum, including those attributed to phosphate ion (PO4-3) at 1000.85 cm-1 and 600 cm-1, indicating the presence of β-TCP phases. Hemocompatibility assessment demonstrated a hemolysis rate of less than 5% for the TCP-alginate membrane, which is found to be within the limits. The developed TCP-reinforced alginate membrane exhibited hemocompatibility and safety, suggesting its suitability for utilization in periodontal therapy as an effective regenerative material.

Tailoring the Interfacial Interactions of Porous Polymer Membranes to Accelerate Atomic Layer Deposition: The Latent Path to Antifouling Membranes

Tailoring the Interfacial Interactions of Porous Polymer Membranes to Accelerate Atomic Layer Deposition: The Latent Path to Antifouling Membranes

Determination of benzoate in cranberry and lingonberry by using a solid-contact benzoate-selective electrode

Benzoic acid is used as a preservative in processed food, and occasionally in cosmetics and pharmaceuticals, while benzoic acid occurs naturally in, e.g., cranberry and lingonberry. Therefore, the determination of benzoate is of interest for product quality assurance, food safety, and personal health. In this work, a solid-contact benzoate-selective electrode (benzoate-ISE) was developed by utilising poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT) as solid contact and a solvent polymeric membrane containing a 1,3-bis(carbazolyl)urea derivative as ionophore. The benzoate-ISE was characterised in parallel with an ionophore-free control-ISE by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy and potentiometry. The presence of the ionophore in the membrane improved the selectivity to benzoate. Benzoate-ISEs and control-ISEs were used further to determine the benzoate concentration in cranberry and lingonberry by standard addition. The results obtained with both types of ISEs were compared with those obtained by ion chromatography. The results obtained with benzoate-ISEs were consistent with those obtained with ion chromatography. On the contrary, the control-ISE (without ionophore) gave significantly higher benzoate concentrations, especially in the case of cranberry where the benzoate concentration was low (ca 0.2 g kg−1) compared to lingonberry (ca 1 g kg−1). Hence, the benzoate-selectivity of the ionophore was crucial to obtain a benzoate-ISE that was practically applicable for determination of benzoate concentrations in cranberry and lingonberry.

Magnetic field assistant method for synthesizing imprinted photocatalytic membrane with highly exposed ZnFe2O4@PoPD heterojunction for efficient selective degradation

Although the phase inversion method has been widely used for the preparation of the photocatalytic polymer membrane, the embedding of photocatalytic powder in the inside of the polymer membrane seriously blocks the active site and limits the photocatalytic efficiency. In this work, we demonstrate that using a magnetic photocatalyst to prepare the photocatalytic membrane can solve the above challenges with the help of magnetic field assistant method. Moreover, a ZnFe2O4@Poly(o-phenylenediamine) core-shell heterojunction (I-ZnFe2O4@PoPD) with imprinted layer is employed as the photocatalyst to prepare the highly exposed imprinted photocatalytic membrane (IM-ZnFe2O4@PoPD), which provides recognized site to selectively capture the specific pollutants and facilitate the charge transfer by formed built-in electric field between ZnFe2O4 and PoPD. In addition, the photodegradation efficiency of the imprinted molecule, such as tetracycline (TC), over the as-prepared IM-ZnFe2O4@PoPD membrane reaches to 75.76%. Inversely, the photodegradation efficiency of unimprinted molecules, like ciprofloxacin (CIP), is only 20.28% in the same condition. The selectivity coefficient of IM-ZnFe2O4@PoPD relative to UIM-ZnFe2O4@PoPD can reach 2.6. Briefly, our work throws light on the preparation of membranes with more exposed active sites and high photocatalytic selectivity.

Preparation of PBI membranes with controlled thickness for use in PEMFCs and the impact on water and phosphoric acid uptake

AbstractProtonated poly (2,2′‐m‐phenylene‐5,5′‐bibenzimidazole) (PBI) membranes are good electrolytes for proton‐exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFC) as they can be operated at high temperatures, thus favoring catalysis reaction kinetics, CO elimination, and water management. Electrolyte production from polymeric membranes with controlled thickness is important for the study of their properties and their use in fuel cells (FCs). When preparing PBI membranes by casting with controlled thickness, polymer solubility in different solvents was assessed as well as the relation between petri dish diameter and solution concentration. Membranes with different thicknesses were phosphonated and had their phosphoric acid (PA) and water uptake measured. A systematic procedure was established to prepare membranes with predetermined thickness using 12 mL of 5–8% PBI in N,N‐dimethylacetamide in petri dishes measuring 5–9 cm. Membranes with predicted thickness of 60 ± 20 μm and 200 ± 40 μm showed a maximum water uptake of 8.34 ± 0.01% and PA uptake of 32 ± 1% and 18 ± 2%, respectively. This study contributed significantly to systematize procedures for producing high‐quality membranes with predefined thickness and to understand the influence of their thickness on their degree of phosphonation.

Potential Nanoparticles to Integrate with Ceramic Membranes for Treating Industrial Wastewater: A Review

Due to human indifference and reckless oily wastewater production from industry, environmental or ecological pollution has become a challenge for our planet. Oily industrial wastewater mostly released by oil fields, refineries, cars, palm oil sectors, and many others is one of the biggest dangers. Oil and water can be virtually completely separated using membrane-based technologies. However, these technologies still face challenges in upholding efficiency over extended periods due to membrane fouling induced by oil droplets mixing with the membranes. Therefore, to overcome these challenges, the creation of polymeric, ceramic, and metallic-based membrane materials with enhanced performance is the focus of research in this field. In this review, various published approaches applied for treating industrial wastewater by using Ceramic Membranes integrated with nanoparticles were focused initially. Then, a modified experimental procedure from the literature for wastewater treatment process by using ceramic membranes is discussed. The majority of studies indicate nearly total oil rejection and increased outputs. Silicon carbide (SiC), Titanium dioxide (TiO2), Aluminum Oxide (Al2O3), Iron Oxide (Fe2O3) Powdered Activated Carbon (PAC), Zirconium dioxide (ZrO2), Alumina powder (Al), Silica (SiO2), Graphene Oxide (GO), and Silver (Ag) are identified potential nanoparticles to mix with ceramic membranes for wastewater treatment application.