Madimak Research Articles

Utilization of Polygonum cognatum Meissn, a Gastronomic Product of the Turkish Culinary Culture, in the Production of Gluten-free Biscuits

ABSTRACT Polygonum cognatum Meissn. (Polygonaceae), locally known as “solucan otu” or “madimak” in Turkey, is a type of edible grass with functional properties that naturally grows in various regions of the country, particularly in Central Anatolia. Celiac disease is a prevalent digestive system disorder that impairs the absorption of food. Incorporating functional ingredients into gluten-free formulations can increase their value. To be a preferred alternative to commonly consumed products, a new product must be sensory-appealing. This study focuses on developing a healthy, functional, and enjoyable gluten-free cookie. Various proportions of P. cognatum flour (10%, 20%, 30%, and 40%) were utilized in the development of the product. The physical, textural, chemical, and sensory characteristics of the biscuit samples were compared to those of samples made with wheat flour (Control 1) and a gluten-free flour mixture (Control 2). The addition of P. cognatum flour proportionally increased the moisture content, ash value, dietary fiber, antioxidant, phenolic matter, and protein content of the biscuits without changing the fat content, according to experimental findings. Samples with 40% P. cognatum addition exhibited higher levels of moisture, ash, protein, dietary fiber, antioxidant, and phenolic matter compared with the other samples. However, the results of the sensory analysis revealed that utilizing more than 30% of P. cognatum flour significantly decreased consumer preference by negatively affecting sensory attributes such as texture, consistency, mouthfeel, taste, overall acceptability, color, and fracture. Hence, it was concluded that this type of flour should not exceed 30% when producing functional gluten-free biscuits. From this study, we advocate for the recognition of P. cognatum as a local and gastronomic product, which has the potential to be utilized in wider areas.

Eco-Friendly Green Synthesis of Zinc Oxide Nano/Microparticles Using Aqueous Leaf Extract of Polygonum cognatum Meisn. Plant

The environmentally friendly plant-based green synthesis approach provides a fabulous opportunity to produce versatile zinc oxide powders with multifarious morphology and/or size. In this study, it was mainly aimed at using Polygonum cognatum Meisn. extract to synthesize zinc oxide powder via a simple green synthesis route. For this purpose, zinc nitrate solution was mixed with an aqueous extract of fresh Polygonum cognatum Meisn. plant leaves to obtain a zinc-based precursor, and then zinc oxide powder was synthesized by means of calcination conducted at 400°C for 2 hours in air. Phase, spectroscopic, and microstructural analysis techniques, as well as Rietveld refinement method and Williamson-Hall analysis, were performed to investigate the powder characteristics. It was found that the synthesized high-purity zinc oxide powder had a hexagonal wurtzite crystal structure. Zinc oxide powder was observed to have a particularly large amount of nano-sized equiaxed particles (~25 nm in average diameter) together with micron-sized hourglass-like particles consisting of two hexagonal prisms (each

Evaluation of phenolic and anthraquinone profiles of Polygonacaeae family from Turkey

The purpose of this research is to compare the content of phenolic compounds (catechin, esculetin, polydatin, rutin, resveratrol, quercetin) and anthraquinones (aloe-emodin, emodin, chrysophanol, physcion) in Polygonum cognatum Meissn. and Rumex crispus L. plant taxa from the flora of Turkey. Extraction parameters such as solvent, solvent ratio, and time for soxhlet method were optimized, and the most effective extraction was carried out for eight hours with methanol-water (3:1 v/v). The development and validation of an HPLC-DAD method allowed for the simultaneous quantification of phenolic compounds and anthraquinones in the plant extracts. The analytical method conditions were defined through an investigation of various parameters, including mobile phase composition, flow rate, and column temperature. The method was validated with good linearity, precision, sensitivity, and recovery. The LOD and LOQ values of the compounds were in the range of 0.032–0.457 µg/mL and 0.106–1.523 µg/mL, respectively. The findings of the study showed that this analytical method was successfully applied to identify and measure the phenolic and anthraquinone compounds in Polygonum cognatum Meissn. and Rumex crispus L. plants.

Evaluation of antidiabetic and antioxidant effects of Polygonum cognatum Meisn. and phytochemical analysis of effective extracts.

Polygonum cognatum Meisn. (Polygonaceae) is used both as food and as a folk medicine to treat diabetes. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of the extracts, along with isolated compounds, from P. cognatum aerial parts on diabetes. In vitro studies were conducted using an α-glucosidase inhibitory assay, while in vivo antidiabetic studies were carried out on streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Effective extracts were subjected to isolation studies, and structures of the compounds were elucidated by spectroscopic methods. The ethyl acetate and n-butanol extracts had the highest effect in both in vitro and in vivo experiments. They also decreased aspartate transaminase, alanine transaminase and malondialdehyde levels, while increasing glutathione and superoxide dismutase activity in rats. From the active extracts, 11 phenolic compounds were isolated and characterized. Among the isolated compounds, quercetin was found to be the most active according to α-glucosidase inhibitory activity studies. This study provided scientific evidence for the traditional use of P. cognatum as a folk medicine for treating diabetes. The findings suggest that the ethyl acetate and n-butanol extracts, as well as quercetin, have the potential for development as antidiabetic agents.

Phytochemical profiling, in vitro biological activities, and in silico (molecular docking and absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion, toxicity) studies of Polygonum cognatum Meissn.

Polygonum cognatum Meissn, a perennial herbaceous belonging to the Polygonaceae family, is an aromatic plant. High-performance liquid chromatography/diode array detector method was developed and validated for the phytochemical analysis of the plant. Also, various methods were used to investigate the antioxidant, antimicrobial, and cytotoxic activities of the methanolic extracts. Antioxidant activities were researched by 2,2'-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl and cupric reducing antioxidant capacity methods. Among the tested standard microbial strains, Candida albicans was found to be more sensitive with a 24.60±0.55mm inhibition zone according to the diffusion tests. In the microdilution tests, the minimum inhibitory concentration and minimum bactericidal/fungicidal concentration values were 4.75 and ≥ 4.75mg/mL, respectively, for all tested pathogens. Human colon carcinoma cells were used to investigate cytotoxicity by using 3-[4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl]-2,5-diphenyl tetrazolium bromideanalysis (IC50 =2891μg/mL for Plant A, IC50 =3291μg/mL for Plant B). Molecular docking and absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion, and toxicity analysis were used to explain inhibition mechanisms of major phenolic compounds of plants against Tankyrase 1, Tankyrase 2 enzymes, and deoxyribonucleic acid gyrase subunit B and found compatible with experimental results.

Biosynthesis of Iron, Copper and Silver Nanoparticles Using Polygonum Cognatum and Tragopogon Porrifolius Extracts and Evaluation of Their Antimicrobial Potentials

In this study, the biosynthesis of iron (Fe), copper (Cu) and silver (Ag) nanoparticles was aimed using aqueous extracts of Polygonum cognatum (P. cognatum) and Tragopogon porrifolius (T. porrifolius). The synthesized nanoparticles were characterized using UV/Vis spectroscopy, fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and dynamic light scattering technique (DLS). The antibacterial activity of the nanoparticles was analyzed against well-known pathogens Klebsiella pneumonia, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Enterococcus faecalis and Staphylococcus aureus. In addition, the anti-fungal activity of the nanoparticles against Candida albicans and Candida utilis strains was evaluated. The obtained results showed that the synthesized nanoparticles have a moderate antimicrobial effect.

Investigation of the effect of Polygonum cognatum Meissn. ethanol extract Bax, Caspase-3, Bcl-2, NF-B and NRF-2/HO-1 pathways in streptozotocin induced diabetic rats

In this study, it was investigated of the effect of Polygonum cognatum Meissn. ethanol extract Bax, Bcl-2, Caspase-3, NF-kB and NRF-2/HO-1 pathways in streptozotocin induced diabetic rats. A total of 24 healthy Spraque-Dawley male rats were randomly divided into four groups containing of 6 rats per group as Control; Diabetes mellitus (DM); Polygonum cognatum Meissn. ethanol extract (PCE) and DM+PCE. Experimental diabetes was induced by a single dose of 60 mg/kg/i.p Streptozotocin (STZ) injection for DM and DM+PCE groups. The animals showing diabetes (Blood glucose level >250 mg/dL) will be selected for diabetes groups in 7 th days. PCE was given at a dose of 10 mg/kg /day/p.o via gavage 20 days. All of rats were sacrificed on 20 th day, taken blood and dissected kidney tissues ender anesthesia. Bax, Bcl-2, Caspase-3, COX-2, HO-1, NF-kB and Nrf-2 expression levels were determined by western blotting in kidney tissue. Compared with the control and diabetes groups, Bax, Caspase-3, COX-2 and NF-kB expression levels increased (p<0.001); Bcl-2, HO-1 and Nrf-2 expression levels were decreased in diabetes group. PCE given with STZ decreased Bax, Caspase-3, COX-2 and NF-kB expression levels (p<0.001); Bcl-2, HO-1 and Nrf-2 expression levels were increased. PCE treats STZ-induced diabetic kidney injury by regulating apoptosis parameters such as Bax, Bcl-2, Caspase-3, and inflammation pathways such as, NF-kB, COX-2, Nrf-2 and HO-1 against STZ-induced diabetes. It was concluded that PCE can be used as a therapeutic agent after determining the molecular processes behind the therapeutic benefits of PCE against kidney damage in STZ-induced diabetes. kidney injury kidney damage. According to the biochemical findings, PCE 10 mg/kg treatment dose decreased in kidney Bax Bcl-2, Caspase-3 and NF-kB pathways, increased in kidney Nrf-2 and HO-1 protein expression levels when administered with STZ was presented as a pioneering study in the literature.

Effects of Polygonum cognatum Meissn. extract on indomethacin induced gastric damage in rats

ABSTRACT We investigated the anti-ulcer activity of ethanol extracts of Polygonum cognatum on indomethacin induced gastric damage in rats. We evaluated the number of ulcer areas, oxidant and antioxidant parameters as well as histopathologic features in rat stomach. We measured the total antioxidant status of P. cognatum in concentrations from 1.56–100 mg/ml. P. cognatum extract inhibited indomethacin induced ulcer formation with an effect similar to a 20 mg/kg dose of the standard anti-ulcer drug, esomeprazole. All doses of P. cognatum extract exhibited positive effects on oxidative stress markers and histopathological features in the stomach tissue of rats. We suggest that the antioxidant activity of P. cognatum extract may be responsible for its gastroprotective effect and that P. cognatum extract may be a useful gastroprotective agent.

Oven, Temperature-Controlled Microwave, and Shade Drying Effects on Drying Kinetics, Bioactive Compounds and Antioxidant Activity of Knotweed (Polygonum cognatum Meissn.).

In this study, the plant node was dried in an oven (40, 50 and 60 °C), shade and temperature-controlled microwave (40, 50 and 60 °C) methods. Statistically (p<0.05), the values closest to the color values of fresh grass were determined in an oven at 40 °C drying temperature. Effective diffusion values varied between 8.85×10-8 -5.65×10-6 m2 s-1 . While the activation energy was 61.28 kJ mol-1 in the oven, it was calculated as 85.24 kJ mol-1 in the temperature-controlled microwave. Drying data was best estimated in the Midilli-Küçük (R2 0.9998) model oven at 50 °C. The highest SMER value was calculated as 0.0098 kg kWh-1 in the temperature-controlled microwave drying method. The lowest SEC value in the temperature-controlled microwave was determined as 24.03 kWh kg-1 . It was determined that enthalpy values varied between -2484.66/-2623.38 kJ mol-1 , entropy values between -162.04/-122.65 J mol-1 and Gibbs free energy values between 453335.22-362581.40 kJ mol-1 . Drying rate values were calculated in the range of 0.0127-0.9820 g moisture g dry matter-1 in the temperature-controlled microwave, 0.0003-0.0762 g dry matter-1 in the oven, and 0.001-0.0058 g moisture g dry moisture matter-1 in the shade. Phenolic content 6957.79 μg GAE g-1 fw - 48322.27 μg GAE g-1 dw, flavonoid content 3806.67 mg KE L-1 fw - 22200.00 mg KE L-1 dw and antioxidant capacity 43.35 μmol TE g-1 fw - 323.47 μmol TE g-1 dw. The highest chlorophyll values were obtained from samples dried in an oven at 40 °C. According to the findings, it is recommended to dry the knotweed (Polygonum cognatum Meissn.) plant in a temperature-controlled microwave oven at low temperatures. In this study, in terms of drying kinetics and energy parameters, a temperature-controlled microwave dryer of 60 °C is recommended, while in terms of quality characteristics, oven 40 °C and shade methods are recommended.

Comprehensive Evaluation of Three Important Herbs for Kombucha Fermentation.

Kombucha is consumed worldwide for its beneficial health effects. Kombucha teas fermented with various herbal infusions have become very important nowadays. Although black tea is used for kombucha fermentation, kombucha teas fermented with different herbal infusions have gained great importance. In this study, three different traditional medicinal plants, namely hop (Humulus lupulus L.), madimak (Polygonum cognatum) and hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna) were used for the fermentation of kombucha beverages, and the bioactivity of these beverages was investigated extensively. The microbiological profile, bacterial cellulose formation, antibacterial, antiproliferative and antioxidant activities, sensory properties, total phenolic content and flavonoid content of kombucha beverages were investigated. Liquid chromatography-coupled mass spectrometry analysis was used to identify and quantify specific polyphenolic compounds in the samples. According to the results, the hawthorn-flavoured kombucha, which has lower free radical scavenging activity than the other samples, came into prominence in terms of sensory properties. All examined kombucha beverages showed a strong cytotoxic effect on Mahlavu and HCT116 cell lines, but only the madimak-flavoured kombucha sample, which had a higher total phenolic/flavonoid content, had antibacterial activity against all microorganisms used in the study. Considering the results of this study, madimak could be an effective herb for the development of new kombucha beverages, although its sensory properties still need to be improved. This study contributes to science in terms of producing new fermented beverages with improved beneficial health effects.

Antioxidant Activity, Phenolic Composition, and Hormone Content of Wild Edible Vegetables

Wild edible plants have been used since antiquity as folk medicine and as preservatives in foods. This study aimed to determine the antioxidant activities, phenolic compounds, and hormone contents of 12 species of edible wild plants belonging to 9 families, which are consumed as vegetables by the local people at Ergan Mountain in Erzincan in Turkey. Polygonum cognatum and Malva neglecta were determined to have more antioxidant enzyme activity, more phenolic compounds, and higher hormone content than the other species. The highest catalase (CAT), peroxidase (POD), glutathione reductase (GR), glutathione-s-transferase (GST) values for P. cognatum were determined as 45.12, 94.83, 36.76, and 1218.35 EU g−1, respectively. The highest superoxide dismutase (SOD) and ascorbate peroxidase (AxPOD) content for M. neglecta were determined as 97.53 EU g−1 and 81.93 EU g−1, respectively. P. cognatum is the species in which the highest levels of the hormones indolacetic acid (IAA), gibberellic acid (GA), salicylic acid (SA), cytokinin, zeatin and jasmonic acid were detected. The highest levels of caftaric acid (CA), catechin (CAE), ferulic acid (FA), malvidin-3-o-glucoside (MG), myricetin (MYR), rutin (RT), trans-coumaric acid (TPCA), tyrosol (TY), and vanilic acid (VA) compounds were found in M. neglecta. It was determined that Falcaria vulgaris species had the highest levels of ferulic acid (FA) and quercetin (QUE) phenolics. The results show that edible wild vegetables consumed and studied by the people of the region are an important source of natural antioxidants. The possibilities of using these wild plants as functional foods should be investigated.

Investigation of resveratrol and phenolic compounds of ethnomedicinal plant Polygonum cognatum Meissn. collected from Sivas

Investigation of resveratrol and phenolic compounds of ethnomedicinal plant Polygonum cognatum Meissn. collected from Sivas

Bioactive properties, antibacterial activity, and color features of Polygonum cognatum: The effects of frozen storage and cooking process

In this study, the effects of frozen storage (for six months at -30 °C) and cooking on total phenolic, antioxidant activity and color characteristics of Polygonum cognatum Meissn. were determined. In addition, the antibacterial activity of the ethanol extract of the plant against Escherichia coli, Salmonella Typhimurium, Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis, and B. cereus was investigated. Both frozen storage and cooking have been found to cause significant decreases in the total phenolics. During the storage, differences among DPPH radical scavenging activities were statistically insignificant. However, the DPPH activity has been found to increase significantly with cooking. Copper-reducing antioxidant capacity has started to decrease considerably after four months of storage. Cooking process slightly increased the copper-reducing capacity. Various changes were detected in the color properties of both frozen stored and cooked samples. The ethanol extract of the plant was effective against all the tested bacteria at different ratios.

Phenolic compounds of natural knotweed (Polygonum cognatum Meissn.) populations from Turkey

The phenolic compositions of two different Polygonum cognatum samples collected from the Cumra and Manisa regions of Turkey were investigated for the first time. Both tested samples were rich in different phenolic compounds, mostly rutin, isorhamnetin, and catechin. The rutin content of Cumra’s sample was relatively higher than that of Manisa’s sample. P. cognatum has potential regarding rutin content as a functional dietary food or may be used as an ingredient to enrich functional foods. Our study will contribute to the previous works performed by different researchers on P. cognatum, commonly consumed in Turkey, to reveal its beneficial properties.

Phenolic compounds of natural knotweed (Polygonum cognatum Meissn.) populations from Turkey

Phenolic compounds of natural knotweed (Polygonum cognatum Meissn.) populations from Turkey

Thermal, Magnetic Properties and Antimicrobial Effects of Magnetic Iron Oxide Nanoparticles Treated with Polygonum cognatum

Thermal, Magnetic Properties and Antimicrobial Effects of Magnetic Iron Oxide Nanoparticles Treated with Polygonum cognatum

Highly reusable plant-based biosorbent for the selective methylene blue biosorption from dye mixture in aqueous media

The natural Polygonum cognatum (P. cognatum) was utilized as a selective biosorbent for the biosorption of methylene blue (MB) from dye mixtures (MB/RhB and MB/MO), separately. P. cognatum was characterized by using SEM–EDX, FT-IR, TGA, BET surface area and zeta measurement techniques. The effects of diverse parameters on the biosorption were investigated, and the kinetic and isotherm models were applied to obtain data to exhibit the biosorption mechanism. The characterization results showed that P. cognatum had various functional groups and also roughness, irregularity and cavities on the structure with the BET surface area of 57.65 m2/g. P. cognatum biosorbed the MB selectively with an attractive efficiency from MB/RhB and MB/MO mixtures and the maximum biosorption capacity of P. cognatum was calculated as 426.39 mg g−1 for MB at pH ~ 5. The selective biosorption could be ascribed to the electrostatic and weak interactions between smaller cationic dye (MB) and negatively charged biosorbent surface with a zeta potential value of − 26.30 mV at pH 5. The pseudo-second order kinetic and Langmuir isotherm models have well-defined the biosorption process. Moreover, P. cognatum showed high biosorption (97.54%) and desorption (100%) efficiencies after ten repeated cycles for MB biosorption. P. cognatum with a high biosorption capacity could be a reusable biosorbent for the selective MB biosorption from dye mixtures. Polygonum cognatum (P. cognatum) selectively biosorbed MB over RhB and MO from the dye mixtures with the maximum biosorption capacity of 426.39 mg g−1. The selective biosorption could be attributed to the electrostatic and weak interactions between smaller cationic dye (MB) and negatively charged biosorbent surface. P. cognatum showed highly reusability after ten repeated cycles for MB biosorption.

Antioxidant activity and mineral nutrient composition of Polygonum cognatum - a potential source of wild edible plant

Wild edible plants are of considerable interest to scientists, governments, and local people living in rural regions, since they are the potential source of novel nutraceuticals and may contribute to food security. Thus, they are increasingly important to understand their nutritional values. Polygonum cognatum is among the widely used wild edible plants in Turkey and worldwide. However, the available literature on the mineral contents and antioxidant properties of this plant is limited. In this study, the P. cognatum samples collected from six different areas in Erzurum, Turkey, were investigated for antioxidant activity (β-carotene Bleaching, DPPH and FRAP), total phenolic content, and presence of macro minerals (P, K, Ca Mg and Na), micro minerals (Fe, Cu, Mn, Zn, B) and heavy metals (Ni and Pb). According to the present research results, total phenolic content and antioxidant potential of P. cognatum were determined to be high, with significant differences according to sampling areas. Our results also showed that P. cognatum contained considerable amounts of magnesium, calcium, potassium, iron, manganese, zinc and low amounts of sodium, boron, nickel, and lead. Therefore, based on the current data, it could be used as a new source of nutraceutical foods and enhance the diversity in a modern functional diet

Investigation of Antimicrobial Effects of Silver Nanoparticles (AgNPs) Synthesized on Polygonum cognatum Meissn. and Fungus Environment

Bu çalışmada, Madımak (Polygonum cognatum Meissn.) ve A. alternata ve üzerinde sentezlenen gümüş nanopartiküllerinin (AgNP) antimikrobiyal etkileri araştırılmıştır. Antimikrobiyal etkinin araştırılmasında patojen bakteri suşlarından gıdalarda yaygın olarak bulunan ve tüketimleri sonucunda ciddi sağlık sorunlarına neden olan Staphyloccus auerus, Enterecoccus fecalis, ve Escherichia coli bakteri türleri ile Aspergillus niger, Penicillium chrysogenum ve Fusarium oxysporium fungus türleri kullanılmıştır. Sentezlenen AgNP’lerin karakterizasyonunda UV-Vis Spektrofotometri Atomik Güç Mikroskobu (AFM) ve Yüksek Kontrastlı Taramalı Elektron Mikroskobu (CCTEM) kullanılmıştır. Antimikrobiyal etkinliğin belirlenmesi amacıyla uygulanan Kirby Bauer Disk Difüzyon testi verilerinin istatistiki değerlendirmelerinde veriler ortalama ± standart hata olarak ifade edilmiş ve SPSS Ver. 22 yazılım programı kullanılarak analiz edilmiştir. Madımak ve A. alternata üzerinde sentezlenen AgNP’leri sadece F. oxysporum’da antifungal etki göstermemiştir. Bununla birlikte diğer fungus türleri üzerinde yüksek bir antifungal etkiye sahip olduğu ancak bu etkinin antifungal ajan Amphotericin B’ye göre bir üstünlüğünü olmadığı saptanmıştır. Her iki sentez sonucunda elde edilen AgNP’lerin çalışılan tüm bakteri türlerinde antibakteriyel etkiye sahip olduğu belirlenmiştir. Ancak A. alternata üzerinde sentezlenen AgNP’lerinin S. aureus üzerinde hem Madımak üzerinde sentezlenen AgNP’lerden hem de Ampicilin antibakteriyel ajanından daha güçlü bir antibakteriyel etkinliği olduğu tespit edilmiştir (p

Determination of biological activity of Tragopogon porrifolius and Polygonum cognatum consumed intensively by people in Sivas

ObjectiveThis study was aimed to investigate the in vitro antioxidant, antimicrobial, cytotoxicity, and enzyme inhibition activities of Tragopogon porrifolius and Polygonum cognatum which are naturally grown and consumed intensively by people in Sivas, Turkey. MethodsPlant materials were extracted with aqueous ethanol by maceration method. The components of the extracts were determined using the Gas Chromatography Mass Spectrometry. Antimicrobial, cytotoxic and enzyme inhibition activities of the extracts were investigated by micro dilution, XTT assay and 96-micro-well plate methods, respectively. The antioxidant activity evaluated using the DPPH radical scavenging, thiobarbituric acid and reducing power methods. The total phenol and total flavonoid content was also examined. ResultsGC–MS analysis revealed the presence of 31 compounds inP. cognatum extract and 29 compounds in T. porrifolius extract. According to the results, T. porrifolius extract showed high level of antioxidant activity in comparison to P. Cognatum extract. T. porrifolius exhibited higher α-glucosidase inhibitory activity, and both extract showed strong α-amylase inhibition activity compared to reference drug acarbose. T. porrifolius and P. cognatum ethanolic extracts exhibited antimicrobial activity in the concentration range of 0.039–2.5 mg/ml. Both extracts also exhibited significant anticancer effect on MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells. The IC50 values of T. porrifolius and P. cognatum extracts in MDA-MB-231 cells were determined as 0.0625 mg/mL and 0.053 mg/mL, respectively. ConclusionOur findings demonstrated that T. porrifolius and P. cognatum ethanolic extracts have promising effect on antioxidant, antimicrobial and cytotoxic activity as well as enzyme inhibition activity, and hence further studies required to identify specific compounds responsible for these activities.