Polyethylene Terephthalate Bottled Water Research Articles

Validated Chromatography Method for Analysis of Formaldehyde Migration Levels in Bottled Drinking Water

Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) is utilized in the containment of potable water, nonetheless, it is susceptible to impairment due to temperature and duration of storage. Migration of formaldehyde from PET arises as a consequence of thermal deterioration. This study aims to ascertain the extent of formaldehyde transference in PET-contained drinking water of varying condition, subjected to diverse temperature setting and storage durations. An examination into the levels of formaldehyde migration in polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottled drinking water was effectively carried out employing a validated high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) technique. A total of 162 water samples from three different PET bottled water brands sourced from supermarkets in Palu City, Central Sulawesi, Indonesia, underwent analysis. The formaldehyde assessment was executed utilizing a mobile phase composition of methanol:acetonitrile:water (48:12:40 v/v) for 12.97 minutes at a flow rate of 0.8 mL/minute on the 1st day, the 14th day, and the 42nd day while stored at room temperature and exposed to sunlight. Formaldehyde, lacking effective chromophoric entities and not readily ionizable, necessitated derivatization with 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine before HPLC analysis. The findings of the study demonstrated exceptional method linearity within the concentration span of 0.5 to 1321 µg/mL, exhibiting a commendable correlation coefficient of 0.999. The limit of detection (LOD) and quantification (LOQ) were determined to be 17.33 and 57.76 µg/mL, correspondingly. Precision evaluations displayed average intraday and interday values of 128.46±3.48% and 103.19±0.12%, respectively (%RSD < 2/3 CV Horwitz ratio). The intraday and interday %recovery values were computed at 97.22±3.48% and 96.83±0.14% (n = 6). The scrutiny of formaldehyde concentrations in the water samples unveiled the absence of formaldehyde migration.

Levels of Phthalate Acid Esters in Drinking Water Bottled in PET (Polyethylene Terephthalate) and PC (Polycarbonates) Bottles - stored under Different Storage Conditions in Mwanza City, Tanzania

Bottled drinking water is widely advertised and sold in glass or, to a greater extent, plastic bottles with metallic or plastic caps, and is regularly drank by both children and adults. Mwanza City markets have many brands of bottled drinking water packed in PET and PC plastic bottles whose polymers may contain additives such as phthalates. Certain cancer types, hormone imbalances, and developmental delays have all been connected to these phthalates, which are harmful to human health. This study investigated, the effects of storage conditions, time spent in storage, and type of container polymer on the leaching of phthalates from packaging materials into particular brands of locally produced PC and PET bottled drinking water that are regularly consumed by adults and children and sold in Mwanza City markets. The method of determination was liquid-liquid extraction followed by chromatographic analysis for identification of the specific phthalates compounds.
 The results that the lowest mean Di methyl phthalates (DMP) concentration in water packed in PET bottles was 0.085 µg/mL before storage and that the mean DMP concentration increased to 0.235 µg/mL following six months of storage at room temperature and outdoor temperature. Additionally, the 18.9-liter PET bottle migrated higher than the 1.5-liter PET bottle due to its larger surface area for water contact and higher surface-to-volume ratio; however, it was found that production contamination, not migration, was the cause of the higher Di methyl phthalates concentrations in the PC bottles. These findings suggest that storing PET bottles containing drinking water at room and outdoor temperatures for an extended period of time directly impacts phthalate migration. Furthermore, this study shows reusing plastic water bottles raises the risk that the inner surface will deteriorate and release more phthalates, which raises concerns about the safety of drinking water that has been prepared and stored in a plastic bottle.

Migration and leaching behaviour of Bisphenol A from polyethylene terephthalate water bottles under different storage conditions

SummaryThe release of bisphenol A (BPA) from polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles in non‐carbonated water was investigated in this work through migration and leaching tests. Several types of PET bottles approved and used by several Romanian non‐carbonated mineral water brands were tested in this work. It was highlighted that both the storage temperature and the storage time of bottled water in PET bottles influence the degree of PBA release. Thus, increasing the temperature and storage time favours the release of BPA from PET. The higher the storage temperature, the higher is the diffusivity of BPA. The degree of BPA release is also closely related to the brand of PET. This could be related to the degree of contamination of the raw material in the manufacturing process of PET bottles or during their recycling. The physico‐chemical characteristics and stability of PET bottles in different environmental conditions can also influence the release of BPA from them. The leaching tests confirmed the potential for BPA contamination of long‐term non‐carbonated water bottled in PET bottles.

Evaluation of Bis (2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate (DEHP) in the PET Bottled Mineral Water of Different Brands and Impact of Heat by GC–MS/MS

Phthalates are one of the ubiquitous contaminants in the environment due to their extensive use in the last few years. They are easily released because they are not chemically bonded to polymers. They migrate into the food during food packing while in water, they migrate during water filling or storage and bottle manufacturing. They are toxic to human health and known as carcinogen/ endocrine disruptors. A total of sixty PET (polyethylene terephthalate) bottled mineral water samples of different six brands were purchased from the local market of Noida, India. These bottles were of two different batch numbers of each brand. Two bottles of each brand with a different batch number were analyzed immediately after purchase while the other eight bottles were analyzed after 2 and 6 months when they were stored in sunlight (~ 45 °C) and—20 °C. The aim of the present study was to determine the migration of DEHP and its impact on storage conditions of PET bottled mineral water in retail stores or homes. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC–MS/MS) was used for the estimation of DEHP in these samples. The author observed that the migration of DEHP was dependent on high temperature and storage time. DEHP was present only in those samples, which were stored in sunlight for 2 & 6 months and at − 20 °C for 6 months. While found below the detection limit in those samples which were analyzed immediately after purchase and stored at − 20 °C for 2 months.

Risk Assessment of Phthalate Compounds in Bottled Water Consumed in Isfahan, Iran

Background: Phthalates are main ingredients of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles used for storage of water. These compounds can cause adverse effects on human health. The purpose of this study was the quantification of the amounts of phthalates migrated in bottled water as well as the risk assessment of those compounds. Methods: This cross sectional study was performed on 15 PET bottled water samples of popular brands distributed in Isfahan city, Iran. The samples were immediately sent to laboratory for analysis. Amounts of Phthalic Anhydride (PA), di-2 ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP), di-buthyl phthalate (DBP), di-ethyl phthalate (DEP), and terphthalic acid (TPA) in bottled water samples were measured using Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis. Risk assessment of migrated compounds were calculated and com- pared with Hazard Quito (HQ) standards. Results: The ranges of PA, DEHP, DBP, and TPA were 2.3-26, 171-845, 30-2251, and 24-657 ppb, respectively. DEP was not found in none of the analyzed samples. HQ levels of DEHP, TPA, and DBP were more than 1 in bottled water. Conclusion: In the current study, the concentration of DEHP, TPA, and DBP in some bottled water of Isfahan, Iran were higher than the permitted limits. Also, HQ levels of these three migrated compounds were more than 1 in bottled water that is alarming for public health in this region of Iran.

Effect of Contact Time on the Level of Phthalates in Polyethylene Terephthalate-bottled Water from the Point of Sale

The study aimed to evaluate the effect of contact time on the level of phthalates in polyethylene terephthalate (PET)-bottled water commercially available on the market. Different water types (drinking water, mineral water, and sparkling water) in PET bottles and mineral water in glass bottles were collected. Control (before bottling) and freshly produced (0-month) samples were collected at manufacturing sites. In contrast, samples at 6, 12, and 18 months of contact times were collected randomly from hypermarkets and supermarkets in Klang Valley, Malaysia. The samples were analyzed using LC-MS/MS with deuterated DEHP as the internal standard. DEHP, DMP, DEP, DnOP, and BBP were not detected in drinking, mineral, and sparkling water in both PET and glass bottles. However, DBP was detected within the range of 0.68 to 1.11 ng/mL for mineral water and 0.55 to 0.59 ng/ mL for drinking water in PET bottles. All types of phthalates, including DBP, were not detected in the control and 0-month samples. DBP was detected at 0.59 ng/mL at 6 months of contact time and 0.55 ng/mL at 12 months of contact time in PET-bottled drinking water samples; the difference, however, was not significant. It appears that contact time did not significantly affect DBP levels.

Simultaneous extraction of six phthalic acid esters from polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottled water using poly (ionic liquid) functionalised silica coated-iron oxide nanoparticles: a risk assessment study

ABSTRACT In this research, a poly (ionic liquid) functionalised silica-coated magnetic nanoparticles were synthesised for the first time and utilised as a novel adsorbent for the simultaneous extraction of six phthalic acid esters from polyethylene terephthalate bottled drinking water samples. The adsorbent was prepared by grafting poly (1-benzyl-3-vinyl-1 H-imidazol-3-ium chloride) onto silica-coated Fe3O4nanoparticles via Cu(0)-mediated reversible-deactivation radical polymerisation method. Various techniques were used to characterise the synthesised nanomaterials. A qualitative analysis was performed using ultra-performance liquid chromatography triple–quadrupole tandem mass spectrometry. Response surface methodology based on central composite design was used to optimise the extraction procedure and the optimised condition for each factor was; pH of3.9, 22 mg of adsorbent, 3.5 min extraction time, 3 min desorption time, 340 µL of elution solvent (methanol).The results of the validation of the method indicated its acceptable accuracy (88.6-100.1%), good linearity (r > 0.995), satisfactory repeatabilities (RSDs ≤ 6% for intra- and inter–day precisions) and high enrichment factors (535–572). The limits of detection and limits of quantification of the proposed method achieved were 1.1-4.6 ngL–1and 3.6-15.3 ngL–1, respectively. In this study, six common PAEs, including dimethyl phthalate, diethyl phthalate, dibutyl phthalate, benzyl butyl phthalate, bis (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate, and di-n–octyl phthalate, were found in PET bottled water within the range of 0.21-0.94 μgL–1, under different storage conditions. Nevertheless, only a negligible risk is caused by the PAEs in PET bottled water for consumers following the recommendations, such as storing at a common place (25°C), in a short period away from the sun.

Plastic (PET) vs bioplastic (PLA) or refillable aluminium bottles – What is the most sustainable choice for drinking water? A life-cycle (LCA) analysis

Nowadays, the most important tool to evaluate the environmental impact of both petro-plastics and bioplastics is the life cycle analysis (LCA). LCA determines the overall impact on the environment by defining, calculation and analyzing all the input and output directly related to production, utilization, and disposal of a product or a process. In this work, a LCA (cradle to grave) of bottles for drinking water was developed on three scenarios: polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles, as conventional packaging material for outdoor drinking water, polylactic acid (PLA) bottles, as alternative and innovative biodegradable packaging and aluminum bottle, as reusable and almost infinitely refilling packaging. As a result of LCA, ten impacts categories have been accounted for, among which the global warming potential (GWP, measured as kgCO2 eq), the eutrophication potential (EP, measured as kgPO4 eq.), human and eco-toxicity (HTP and ETP, measured as kg 1,4-DB eq.). The average drinking water consumption in Italy has been estimated in 1.5 L per day, corresponding to three 500 ml-plastic bottles and 1 refillable aluminum bottle. LCA has been firstly applied to a single bottle production and use, then to the daily and annual bottles consumption. PET bottles production and use assure the lower environmental impacts compared to PLA bottles, burdened by agricultural phase for corn cultivation, and to aluminum bottles, when the every-day washing with hot water or water and soap is comprehended. Moreover, including the end-of-life options into the analysis, PET recycling permits to reduce up to about 30% the GWP, whereas PLA composting does not lead to any GWP savings. In this study, aluminum bottle has been considered reusable for 2.5 years. The microbiological quality of water in one-way PET and PLA bottles has been compared with the refillable bottle rinsing with hot water and soap and only hot water, highlighting that the level of contamination is alarmingly increased in the latter case.

A COMPARATIVE STUDY ABOUT THE AMOUNT OF MICROPLASTIC IN POLYETHYLENE TEREPHTALATE (PET) DRINKING WATER THAT WAS EXPOSED AND NOT EXPOSED BY SUN AT ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH LABORATORY OF POLTEKKES KEMENKES SEMARANG AT THE YEAR 2020

The majority of bottled water industry uses polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles as their packaging. When exposed to direct sunlight, this type of packaging is able to cause new compounds in water. Research at the State University of New York states showed that from 259 bottled water in 9 countries, 242 of them contained microplastics. The purpose of this study is to determine whether there are differences in the amount of microplastic in bottled PET containers that are exposed and not exposed to sunlight. This type of research is pre-experimental using the static group comparison design. There are 2 treatment groups: PET bottled water that is exposed and not exposed to sunlight. The results showed that there were microplastics in PET bottled water exposed and not exposed to sunlight. Samples of bottled PET which exposed to sunlight have microplastic’s number of 175 particles/ liter. Whereas bottled water that was not exposed to sunlight has microplastic’s number of 132,25 particles/ liter. Independent t-test showed that the Sig (2-tailed) value was 0,023. This value less than = 0,05. So, we can say that there were differences between both of them. The conclusion of the study was that there were differences in the number of microplastics between PET bottled water exposed and not exposed to sunlight. As a form of vigilance, the public is advised to deliver PET bottled water from direct sunlight both for distribution and other type utilization of PET bottles for other purposes such as disinfection of water using sunlight (SODIS).

Evaluation of the genotoxicity of mineral water in polyethylene terephthalate bottles exposed to solar radiation and temperature at variable timescale

AbstractMost bottling companies in Ethiopia use polyethylene terephthalate bottles to package. However, less attention is given to toxic chemicals that could migrate from packaging material into the water. This study aims to assess leaching and toxicological conditions in PET bottled water due to prolonged storage and exposure to direct sunlight. Allium cepa test was used to determine mitotic index (MI) and chromosomal aberrations (CAs). One‐way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Dunnet’s multiple comparison test were used. P < 0.05 considered statistically significant. The higher chromosomal aberrations and the lowest mitotic index were significantly observed at high temperature (35°C) for one month at P < 0.000. The lower mitotic index was correlated with growth cycle disturbance leading to cell growth reduction. Further investigation is recommended to describe the mechanism and rate of migration of chemicals from water samples supplied in PET bottle.

Phthalate Esters and Their Potential Risk in PET Bottled Water Stored under Common Conditions.

A great deal of attention has been paid lately to release of phthalate esters (PAEs) from polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles into PET bottled drinking water due to their potential endocrine-disrupting effects. Three kinds of PAEs, including diethyl phthalate (DEP), dimethyl phthalate (DMP) and dibutyl phthalate (DBP), were detected in 10 popular brands of PET bottles in Beijing, ranging from 101.97 μg/kg to 709.87 μg/kg. Meanwhile, six kinds of PAEs, including DEP, DMP, DBP, n-butyl benzyl phthalate (BBP), di-n-octyl phthalate (DOP) and di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), were detected in PET bottled water, ranging from 0.19 μg/L to 0.98 μg/L, under an outdoor storage condition, while their concentrations ranged from 0.18 μg/L to 0.71 μg/L under an indoor storage condition. Furthermore, the concentrations of PAEs in brand D and E bottles were slightly increased when the storage time was prolonged. In addition, the concentrations of PAEs in commercial water contained in brand B and H bottles and pure water contained in brand E and G bottles were also slightly increased with the increase of storage temperature. Interestingly, DBP mainly contributed to the increased PAEs levels in simulation water. These results suggest that a part of the PAEs in PET bottled water originated from plastic bottles, which was related to the storage time and temperature. However, the PAEs in PET bottled water only pose a negligible risk to consumers if they follow the recommendations, such as storage at a common place (24 °C), away from sun and in a short period of time.

Effects of Water Samples in Polyethylene Terephthalate Bottles Stored at Different Conditions on Zebrafish Embryos with Relevance to Endocrine Disrupting Chemical Migration and Adenomatous Polyposis Coli Tumor Suppressor Gene

Objective: Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) is a material that is most commonly used for production of clear plastic bottles. Adenomatous polyposis coli (APC) and β-catenin have been related with cancer. Aim was to investigate the effects of PET bottled water samples that were exposed to sunlight and hot water on zebrafish embryos. Moreover the effects of these water samples on APC knockdown zebrafish embryos were also evaluated.Methods: Phthalate concentrations in water samples were determined using ELISA. Immunohistochemical method and RT-PCR were used to analyse the expressions of proliferative cell nuclear antigen (PCNA), β catenin, Wnt 3a and Gsk3β. Biochemical parameters were measured using spectrophotometric methods. Vitellogenin concentrations were measured using ELISA and apoptotic cells were evaluated by Acridine Orange staining.Results: Increased PCNA, β-catenin, Wnt 3a, Gsk3β expressions, vitellogenin, nitric oxide, apoptosis and impaired oxidant-antioxidant balance were observed in the exposure groups with these increases being more profound in APC knockdown groups.Conclusion: APC knockdown embryos were more prone to the deleterious effects of water samples used in this study.

Concentrations of several phthalates contaminants in Egyptian bottled water: Effects of storage conditions and estimate of human exposure

The occurrence and concentrations of six common phthalates were investigated for the first time in bottled water locally produced in the Egyptian market. The compounds investigated were dimethyl phthalate (DMP), diethyl phthalate (DEP), dibutyl phthalate (DBP), n-butyl benzyl phthalate (BBP), diethyl hexyl phthalate (DEHP), and Di-n-octyl phthalate (D-n-OP). A set of 108 bottled water samples from six different commercial brands of water bottled in transparent polyethylene terephthalate (PET) plastic bottles with high density polyethylene (HDPE) plastic caps were investigated. Water samples were analyzed immediately after purchasing (~2weeks after production), after being stored at room temperature (25±5°C), in a refrigerator (4±1°C) and outdoor under sun exposure (daylight temperature of 40±5°C). Samples were stored up to six months depending on the tested condition. Among the target compounds, only DEHP and DBP were detected in the samples analyzed immediately after purchasing with a detection frequency of 50 and 58% and mean concentrations of 0.104 and 0.082μgl−1 respectively. Significant positive correlation was obtained between the storage time, temperature and the concentration of phthalate compounds detected in the bottled water, indicating possible migration from the PET plastic material as the source. The estimated contribution of bottled water consumption to the tolerable daily intake (TDI) levels of the two most abundant phthalates observed here for adults and toddlers did not exceed 0.16 and 0.72% for DBP while these values were 0.04 and 0.16% for DEHP respectively. These estimated daily intake values from PET bottled water consumption were far below their respective TDI values and therefore should constitute no adverse health effects.

Study of the influence of storage conditions on the quality and migration levels of antimony in polyethylene terephthalate-bottled water.

The main objectives of this study are to determine the presence of antimony in water stored in polyethylene terephthalate bottles and the influence of temperature and time over the migration levels. For this purpose, Sb determination was carried out in water at different experimental conditions: storage for one to three weeks at 25 to 80 ℃; long-term (six months) storage at room temperature between 16 and 24 ℃ and storage in car during summer which is a common consumer's habit. In addition, water quality analysis was developed after different time-temperature storage conditions. All the samples at the end of their storage conditions were analyzed by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. The limit of detection and quantification were 0.50 and 0.80 µg/L, respectively. The results for the bottled water stored during six months indicated that the average Sb concentration was 0.332 ± 0.015 µg/L. This value is below the European maximum permissible migration level of 5 µg/L. With regard to the newly bottled water, no Sb was detected at the initial time for all temperatures studied. However, the Sb concentration in water increased with both time and temperature. The levels of Sb started exceeding the European limits when the samples were stored at 60 ℃ for two weeks.

An evaluation of the migration of antimony from polyethylene terephthalate (PET) plastic used for bottled drinking water

The leaching of antimony (Sb) from polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottling material was assessed in twelve brands of bottled water purchased in Mexican supermarkets by atomic fluorescence spectrometry with a hydride generation system (HG-AFS). Dowex® 1X8-100 ion-exchange resin was used to preconcentrate trace amounts of Sb in water samples. Migration experiments from the PET bottle material were performed in water according to the following storage conditions: 1) temperature (25 and 75°C), 2) pH (3 and 7) and 3) exposure time (5 and 15days), using ultrapure water as a simulant for liquid foods. The test conditions were studied by a 23 factorial experimental design. The Sb concentration measured in the PET packaging materials varied between 73.0 and 111.3mg/kg. The Sb concentration (0.28–2.30μg/L) in all of the PET bottled drinking water samples examined at the initial stage of the study was below the maximum contaminant level of 5μg/L prescribed by European Union (EU) regulations. The parameters studied (pH, temperature, and storage time) significantly affected the release of Sb, with temperature having the highest positive significant effect within the studied experimental domain. The highest Sb concentration leached from PET containers was in water samples at pH7 stored at 75°C for a period of 5days. The extent of Sb leaching from the PET ingredients for different brands of drinking water can differ by as much as one order of magnitude in experiments conducted under the worst-case conditions. The chronic daily intake (CDI) caused by the release of Sb in one brand exceeded the Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) regulated CDI value of 400ng/kg/day, with values of 514.3 and 566.2ng/kg/day for adults and children. Thus, the appropriate selection of the polymer used for the production of PET bottles seems to ensure low Sb levels in water samples.

Impact of sunlight/dark storage on natural spring water bottled in polyethylene terephthalate

The effect of two environmental variables, ultraviolet radiation and external air temperature, on polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottled water was investigated over 100 days. The high pressure liquid chromatography results showed the migration of carbonyl compounds (acetaldehyde, formaldehyde and acetone) from PET bottles into water over 3 months. Storage of PET bottled water enhanced the process of carbonyl compounds migration especially under sunlight. The combination of these two environmental variables caused an increase of 15% in each carbonyl compound compared with storage in the dark at the laboratory. The maximum ambient Ultraviolet-B, Ultraviolet-A and Photo-synthetically Active Radiation intensity at the solar noon were 1.95, 23.0 W/m2 and 100,000 Lux, respectively.

Preliminary toxicological assessment of phthalate esters from drinking water consumed in Portugal

This paper reports, for the first time, the concentrations of selected phthalates in drinking water consumed in Portugal. The use of bottled water in Portugal has increased in recent years. The main material for bottles is polyethylene terephthalate (PET). Its plasticizer components can contaminate water by leaching, and several scientific studies have evidenced potential health risks of phthalates to humans of all ages. With water being one of the most essential elements to human health and because it is consumed by ingestion, the evaluation of drinking water quality, with respect to phthalate contents, is important. This study tested seven commercial brands of bottled water consumed in Portugal, six PET and one glass (the most consumed) bottled water. Furthermore, tap water from Lisbon and three small neighbor cities was analyzed. Phthalates (di-n-butyl phthalate ester (DnBP), bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate ester (DEHP), and di-i-butyl phthalate ester (DIBP)) in water samples were quantified (PET and glass) by means of direct immersion solid-phase microextraction and ionic liquid gas chromatography associated with flame ionization detection or mass spectrometry due to their high boiling points and water solubility. The method utilized in this study showed a linear range for target phthalates between 0.02 and 6.5μgL(-1), good precision and low limits of detection that were between 0.01 and 0.06μgL(-1), and quantitation between 0.04 and 0.19μgL(-1). Only three phthalates were detected in Portuguese drinking waters: dibutyl (DnBP), diisobutyl (DIBP), and di(ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP). Concentrations ranged between 0.06 and 6.5μgL(-1) for DnBP, between 0.02 and 0.16μgL(-1) for DEHP, and between 0.1 and 1.89μgL(-1) for DIBP. The concentration of DEHP was found to be up to five times higher in PET than in glass bottled water. Surprisingly, all the three phthalates were detected in glass bottled water with the amount of DnBP being higher (6.5μgL(-1)) than in PET bottled water. These concentrations do not represent direct risk to human health. Regarding potable tap water, only DIBP and DEHP were detected. Two of the cities showed concentration of all three phthalates in their water below the limits of detection of the method. All the samples showed phthalate concentrations below 6μgL(-1), the maximum admissible concentration in water established by the US Environmental Protection Agency. The concentrations measured in Portuguese bottled waters do not represent any risk for adult's health.

Impact of temperature and storage duration on the chemical and odor quality of military packaged water in polyethylene terephthalate bottles

The impact of temperature and storage time on military packaged water (MPW) quality was examined at four temperatures (23.0°C to 60.0°C) for 120days. Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles were filled in California and Afghanistan with unbuffered water treated by reverse osmosis. The US military's water pH long-term potability standard was exceeded, and US Food and Drug Administration (USFDA) and US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) drinking water pH and odor intensity limits were also exceeded. During a 70day exposure period, Port Hueneme MPW total organic carbon and total trihalomethane levels increased from <0.25mg/L to 2.0±0.0mg/L and <0.05μg/L to 51.5±2.1μg/L, respectively. PET released organic contaminants into MPW and residual disinfectant generated trihalomethane contaminants. After 14days at 37.7°C and 60.0°C, Afghanistan MPW threshold odor number values were 8.0 and 8.6, respectively. Total organic carbon concentration only increased with exposure duration at 60.0°C. Acetaldehyde and formaldehyde contaminants were not detected likely due to the high method detection limits applied in this study. Phthalate contaminants detected and their maximum levels were butylbenzylphthalate (BBP) 0.43μg/L, di-n-butylphthalate (DnBP) 0.38μg/L, di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) 0.6μg/L, and diethylphthalate (DEP) 0.32μg/L. Antimony was only detected in 60.0°C Afghanistan MPW on Day 28 and beyond, and its maximum concentration was 3.6±0.3μg/L. No antimony was found in bottles exposed to lesser temperatures. Environmental health, PET synthesis and bottle manufacturers, and bottle users can integrate results of this work to improve health protective decisions and doctrine.

Antimony release in PET bottled natural water in Lebanon

Antimony (Sb) leaching from polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottling material was assessed in eight registered Lebanese brands of bottled natural water as a function of contact time. The study was performed indoors at 22 °C in the dark and outdoors at a maximum temperature of 45 °C under sunlight. The leached antimony concentration increased with contact time for all of the studied brands except one. The antimony concentration reached 5.5 μg/L after 544 days of contact time with PET packaging. Small bottles with large contact surface area had higher antimony concentration. However, outdoor storage under sunlight at temperatures below 45 °C did not reveal a significant effect on antimony release. Among some physico-chemical parameters studied (pH, calcium, magnesium and bicarbonate), only calcium concentration showed a significant effect on antimony release. The rate of antimony leaching, normalized to the surface to volume ratio of the water bottle, fits the exponential model Sb/(S/V) = 0.562e0.0041t, with R2 = 0.87. Atomic absorption spectroscopy analysis of the different PET packaging material showed an antimony concentration between 80.6 and 352.7 mg Sb/kg PET.

Solar disinfection improves drinking water quality to prevent diarrhea in under-five children in sikkim, India.

Background:Solar radiations improve the microbiological quality of water and offer a method for disinfection of drinking water that requires few resources and no expertise and may reduce the prevalence of diarrhea among under-five children.Aims and Objectives:To find out the reduction in the prevalence of diarrhea in the under-five children after consumption of potable water treated with solar disinfection method.Materials and Methods:This was a population-based interventional prospective study in the urban slum area of Mazegoan, Jorethang, south Sikkim, during the period 1st May 2007 to 30th November 2007 on 136 children in the under-five age group in 102 households selected by random sampling. Main outcome measure was the assessment of the reduction of the prevalence of diarrhea among under-five children after consumption of potable water treated with solar disinfection method practiced by the caregivers in the intervention group keeping water in polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles as directed by the investigators. The data were collected by the interview method using a pre-tested questionnaire prepared on the basis of socio-demographics and prevalence of diarrhea. The data were subjected to percentages and chi-square tests, which were used to find the significance.Results:After four weeks of intervention among the study group, the diarrhea prevalence was 7.69% among solar disinfection (SODIS) users, while 31.82% prevalence was observed among non-users in that period; the reduction in prevalence of diarrhea was 75.83%. After eight weeks of intervention, the prevalence of diarrhea was 7.58% among SODIS users and 31.43% among non-users; the reduction in diarrhea was 75.88% in the study group. The findings were found to be statistically significant.Conclusions:In our study, we observed that the prevalence of diarrhea decreased significantly after solar disinfection of water was practiced by the caregivers keeping potable water in PET bottles in the intervention group.