Polyamines Spermine Research Articles

Signatures of Mitochondrial Dysfunction and Impaired Fatty Acid Metabolism in Plasma of Patients with Post-Acute Sequelae of COVID-19 (PASC).

Exercise intolerance is a major manifestation of post-acute sequelae of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus infection (PASC, or "long-COVID"). Exercise intolerance in PASC is associated with higher arterial blood lactate accumulation and lower fatty acid oxidation rates during graded exercise tests to volitional exertion, suggesting altered metabolism and mitochondrial dysfunction. It remains unclear whether the profound disturbances in metabolism that have been identified in plasma from patients suffering from acute coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) are also present in PASC. To bridge this gap, individuals with a history of previous acute COVID-19 infection that did not require hospitalization were enrolled at National Jewish Health (Denver, CO, USA) and were grouped into those that developed PASC (n = 29) and those that fully recovered (n = 16). Plasma samples from the two groups were analyzed via mass spectrometry-based untargeted metabolomics and compared against plasma metabolic profiles of healthy control individuals (n = 30). Observational demographic and clinical data were retrospectively abstracted from the medical record. Compared to plasma of healthy controls or individuals who recovered from COVID-19, PASC plasma exhibited significantly higher free- and carnitine-conjugated mono-, poly-, and highly unsaturated fatty acids, accompanied by markedly lower levels of mono-, di- and tricarboxylates (pyruvate, lactate, citrate, succinate, and malate), polyamines (spermine) and taurine. Plasma from individuals who fully recovered from COVID-19 exhibited an intermediary metabolic phenotype, with milder disturbances in fatty acid metabolism and higher levels of spermine and taurine. Of note, depletion of tryptophan-a hallmark of disease severity in COVID-19-is not normalized in PASC patients, despite normalization of kynurenine levels-a tryptophan metabolite that predicts mortality in hospitalized COVID-19 patients. In conclusion, PASC plasma metabolites are indicative of altered fatty acid metabolism and dysfunctional mitochondria-dependent lipid catabolism. These metabolic profiles obtained at rest are consistent with previously reported mitochondrial dysfunction during exercise, and may pave the way for therapeutic intervention focused on restoring mitochondrial fat-burning capacity.

Spermine inhibits PAMP-induced ROS and Ca2+ burst and reshapes the transcriptional landscape of PAMP-triggered immunity in Arabidopsis.

Polyamines are small polycationic amines whose levels increase during defense. Previous studies support the contribution of the polyamine spermine to defense responses. However, the potential contribution of spermine to pathogen-associated molecular pattern (PAMP)-triggered immunity (PTI) has not been completely established. Here, we compared the contribution of spermine and putrescine to early and late PTI responses in Arabidopsis. We found that putrescine and spermine have opposite effects on PAMP-elicited reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, with putrescine increasing and spermine lowering the flg22-stimulated ROS burst. Through genetic and pharmacological approaches, we found that the inhibitory effect of spermine on flg22-elicited ROS production is independent of polyamine oxidation, nitric oxide, and salicylic acid signaling but resembles chemical inhibition of RBOHD (RESPIRATORY BURST OXIDASE HOMOLOG D). Spermine can also suppress ROS elicited by FLS2-independent but RBOHD-dependent pathways, thus pointing to compromised RBOHD activity. Consistent with this, we found that spermine but not putrescine dampens flg22-stimulated cytosolic Ca2+ influx. Finally, we found that both polyamines differentially reshape transcriptional responses during PTI and disease resistance to Pseudomonas syringae. Overall, we provide evidence for the differential contributions of putrescine and spermine to PTI, with an impact on plant defense.

Plasma Biomarkers and Fractional Exhaled Nitric Oxide in the Diagnosis of Eosinophilic Esophagitis.

Eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE) is a chronic disease which requires endoscopy with biopsies for diagnosis and monitoring. We aimed to identify a panel of non-invasive markers that could help identify patients with active EoE. In this prospective cohort study, we enrolled 128 children aged 5-18 years old, scheduled for endoscopy for suspected esophageal or peptic disease. On the day of the endoscopy, fractionated exhaled nitric oxide (FeNO) was measured; and blood was collected for peripheral absolute eosinophil count (AEC), plasma amino acids, and plasma polyamine analysis. Patients were grouped into controls (n = 91), EoE in remission (n = 16), or active EoE (n = 21), based on esophageal eosinophilia and history of EoE. AEC was not statistically significant different among the groups compared ( P = 0.056). Plasma amino acids: citrulline (CIT), β-alanine (β-ALA), and cysteine (CYS) were higher in active EoE compared to controls ( P < 0.05). The polyamine spermine was lower in active EoE versus controls ( P < 0.05). Receiver operator characteristic (ROC) curve to assess the predictive capability of a combined score made of FeNO, β-ALA, CYS, and spermine had an area under curve (AUC) of 0.90 (95% CI: 0.80-0.96) in differentiating active EoE from controls and 0.87 (95% CI: 0.74-1.00) when differentiating active EoE from EoE in remission. A panel comprising FeNO, 2 plasma amino acids (β-ALA, CYS) and the polyamine spermine can be used as a non-invasive tool to differentiate active EoE patients from controls.

Analytical assays to evaluate enzymatic activity and screening of inhibitors for ornithine decarboxylase

Ornithine decarboxylase (ODC) catalyzes the decarboxylation of ornithine to produce putrescine, the first step in the metabolism of polyamines (putrescine, spermidine, and spermine), which are essential growth factors in eukaryotic cells. ODC is active as a homodimer and depends on pyridoxal 5′-phosphate (PLP) as a cofactor. An increase in the concentration of polyamines has been associated with carcinogenesis. Therefore, there is much interest in identifying inhibitors of this pathway as potential chemotherapeutic and chemopreventive agents. The best-known inhibitor of mammalian ODC is α-difluoromethylornithine (DFMO), a highly selective compound that alkylates Cys-360 (a residue of the ODC active site). Although DFMO was initially developed for the treatment of cancer, the World Health Organization recommends its use in combination with nifurtimox for the treatment of human African trypanosomiasis. Considering the importance of ODC as a promising target for the treatment of various types of cancer and other infectious diseases, choosing the right method for screening potential inhibitors can help to accelerate the discovery of new drugs. Several methods for the determination of ODC activity are found in the literature. Among these, we can mention analysis with radioactive markers, colorimetric assays using auxiliary enzymes to detect CO2 or H2O2 release, chromatographic separations with putrescine derivatization, mass spectrometry, and spectroscopic techniques. In this review, the main analysis methods used will be described, highlighting their advantages and disadvantages, as well as identifying the most promising methods for high-throughput screening.

Practical Synthesis of Polyamine Succinamides and Branched Polyamines.

Antibiotic resistance is now a growing threat to human health, further exacerbated by the lack of new antibiotics. We describe the practical synthesis of a series of substituted polyamine succinamides and branched polyamines that are potential new antibiotics against both Gram‐positive and Gram‐negative bacteria, including MRSA and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. They are prepared via 1,4‐Michael addition of acrylonitrile and then hydrogenation of the nitrile functional groups to primary amines. They are built upon the framework of the naturally occurring polyamines thermine (3.3.3, norspermine) and spermine (3.4.3), homo‐ and heterodimeric polyamine succinic amides. Linking two of the same or different polyamines together via amide bonds can be achieved by introducing a carboxylic acid group on the first polyamine, then coupling that released carboxylic acid to a free primary amine in the second polyamine. If the addition of positive charges on the amino groups along the polyamine chains are a key factor in their antimicrobial activity against Gram‐negative bacteria, then increasing them will increase the antimicrobial activity. Synthesising polyamine amide dimers will increase the total net positive charge compared to their monomers. The design and practical synthesis of such homo‐ and hetero‐dimers of linear polyamines, spermine and norspermine, are reported. Several of these compounds do not display significant antibacterial activity against Gram‐positive or Gram‐negative bacteria, including MRSA and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. However, the most charged analogue, a branched polyamine carrying eight positive charges at physiological pH, displays antibiofilm activity with a 50 % reduction in PAO1 at 16–32 μg mL−1.

278 Awardee Talk: Progesterone Regulates the Abundance of Mrnas and Proteins Involved in Polyamine Metabolism in the Sheep Endometrium

Abstract Agmatine and polyamines (putrescine, spermidine, and spermine), metabolites of L-arginine, are important for development of mammalian conceptuses. The objective of this study was to determine if exogenous progesterone administered during the pre-implantation period, which accelerates conceptus development, alters the expression of mRNAs and proteins involved in the metabolism of agmatine and polyamines in the sheep uterus during pregnancy. Mature Suffolk ewes were bred to fertile rams and assigned randomly to be treated with daily i.m. injections of either 1ml corn oil (CO;n=28) or 25mg progesterone in corn oil (P4;n=20) from Day 1.5 through Day 8 after breeding (Day 0). Ewes were hysterectomized on Day 9, 12, or 125 of gestation and endometrial samples were collected. The expression of candidate mRNAs was quantified using qPCR and proteins localized using immunohistochemistry. On Day 9 of pregnancy, the expression of mRNAs for AMD1 (P &amp;lt; 0.01), ASL (P &amp;lt; 0.01), and SLC12A8 (P &amp;lt; 0.05) was greater in endometria of P4-treated compared to CO-treated ewes. The expression for MAT2B mRNA was greater (P &amp;lt; 0.001) for P4-treated compared to CO-treated ewes on both Days 9 and 12. On Day 125 of gestation, endometria from P4-treated ewes tended to have greater expression of SAT1 (P &amp;lt; 0.10) mRNA compared to CO-treated ewes. In contrast, the expression of AMD1(P &amp;lt; 0.01), MAT2B (P &amp;lt; 0.05), OAT (P &amp;lt; 0.05), SMOX (P &amp;lt; 0.05), and SLC12A8 (P &amp;lt; 0.05) mRNAs was lower in endometria from P4-treated compared to CO-treated ewes on Day 125. Exogenous P4 appeared to increase the relative abundance of SAT1 and SMOX proteins in the uterine luminal and glandular epithelia on Day 125 of pregnancy. These results suggest that early administration of progesterone may alter the biosynthesis of agmatine and polyamines in the sheep uterus during the pre-implantation period of pregnancy with potential ‘programming’ effects manifested in late pregnancy.

Ectomycorrhizal Fungi Modulate Biochemical Response against Powdery Mildew Disease in Quercus robur L.

In light of climate change, pedunculate oak (Q. robur L.) was marked as the most threatened European tree species. Pedunculate oak is particularly jeopardized by powdery mildew disease caused by Erysiphe alphitoides. We hypothesized that priming of this tree species with ectomycorrhizal fungi could mitigate biotic stress and produce bioprotective properties against the disease. In this study, we have compared oaks’ foliar physiological and biochemical responses upon infection with E. alphitoides in the presence and absence of ectomycorrhizal fungi (ECM). The main aim of this study was to inspect how ECM modulate an oak’s biochemical response to infection with E. alphitoides, particularly at the level of the accumulation of the main polyamines (putrescine, spermidine, and spermine), soluble osmolytes (proline and glycine betaine), and phenolics (total phenolic content, flavonoids, and condensed tannins). A polyamine quantification was performed after derivatization by using high-performance liquid chromatography (HLPC) coupled with fluorescent detection. Oak seedlings inoculated with ECM fungi exhibited significantly higher levels of putrescine, spermine, and proline compared to non-inoculated seedlings, indicating the priming properties of the ECM. E. alphitoides caused an increase in individual and total polyamine content and lipid peroxidation in oak leaves regardless of the effect of ECM, while causing a decrease in physiological and antioxidative parameters and water use efficiency (WUE). Common biochemical parameters may contribute to understanding the underpinning plant defense mechanisms in three-way interactions among plants and pathogenic and ectomycorrhizal fungi and can be used as reliable adaptability descriptors in the context of climate change.

Understanding the Polyamine and mTOR Pathway Interaction in Breast Cancer Cell Growth.

The polyamines putrescine, spermidine and spermine are nutrient-like polycationic molecules involved in metabolic processes and signaling pathways linked to cell growth and cancer. One important pathway is the PI3K/Akt pathway where studies have shown that polyamines mediate downstream growth effects. Downstream of PI3K/Akt is the mTOR signaling pathway, a nutrient-sensing pathway that regulate translation initiation through 4EBP1 and p70S6K phosphorylation and, along with the PI3K/Akt, is frequently dysregulated in breast cancer. In this study, we investigated the effect of intracellular polyamine modulation on mTORC1 downstream protein and general translation state in two breast cancer cell lines, MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231. The effect of mTORC1 pathway inhibition on the growth and intracellular polyamines was also measured. Results showed that polyamine modulation alters 4EBP1 and p70S6K phosphorylation and translation initiation in the breast cancer cells. mTOR siRNA gene knockdown also inhibited cell growth and decreased putrescine and spermidine content. Co-treatment of inhibitors of polyamine biosynthesis and mTORC1 pathway induced greater cytotoxicity and translation inhibition in the breast cancer cells. Taken together, these data suggest that polyamines promote cell growth in part through interaction with mTOR pathway. Similarly intracellular polyamine content appears to be linked to mTOR pathway regulation. Finally, dual inhibition of polyamine and mTOR pathways may provide therapeutic benefits in some breast cancers.

Improvement of Polyethylene Glycol, Sorbitol, Mannitol, and Sucrose-Induced Osmotic Stress Tolerance through Modulation of the Polyamines, Proteins, and Superoxide Dismutase Activity in Potato

The present study was planned to investigate the changes in morphological and biochemical parameters of in vitro-grown potato (cultivar Cardinal and Desiree) plants under osmotic stress conditions induced by various concentrations of sorbitol, mannitol (0, 0.025, 0.05, 0.10, or 0.15 M), sucrose (0, 2, 3, 4, 6, and 8%), and polyethylene glycol (PEG: MW-4000: 0, 5, 10, 15, and 20%). Nodal segments (ca. 1.0 cm) from healthy in vitro-grown potato plantlets were inoculated on Murashige and Skoog’s medium consisting of various levels of above mentioned drought stress-inducing agents. Data was recorded on 60th day of incubation exhibited a severe reduction in most of the growth parameters at 0.10 and 0.15 M of sorbitol and mannitol, respectively, and at 5–10% PEG. Similar results were observed when the sucrose level varied from 3% except for the number of roots and plant dry weight, which exhibited an increase in increasing the sucrose level. Data collected for total soluble protein content and activity of an antioxidant enzyme (superoxide dismutase) unveiled an overall increasing trend in osmotically stressed potato plants suggesting their major action in detoxification of active oxygen species produced under osmotic stress. Polyamines (putrescine, spermidine, and spermine) increased significantly in both the cultivars of potato by using osmotic stress-inducing agent in the present investigation indicating their positive role in stress alleviation. Overall results indicated that potato cultivar Desiree was more stress-tolerant than the cultivar Cardinal.

Reduction of biogenic amines formation by foodborne pathogens using postbiotics in lysine-decarboxylase broth

Postbiotics is a novel term proposed to describe as a set of bioactive compounds obtained from beneficial microorganisms. In this work, postbiotics from four lactic acid bacteria (LAB) including Leuconostoc mesenteroides subsp. cremoris, Pediococcus acidilactici, Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis and Streptococcus thermophilus were prepared in MRS broth. The antimicrobial properties and organic acids content of postbiotics were also investigated. Postbiotics were used to tentatively reduce the production of biogenic amines by foodborne pathogens (i.e., Salmonella paratyphi A and Escherichia coli) on lysine decarboxylase broth (LDB). Experimental data showed that acetic, propionic, and butyric acids were in the range of 387.51–709.21 mg/L, 0.00–1.28 mg/L, and 0.00–20.98 mg/L, respectively. The inhibition zone of postbiotics on E. coli and S. paratyphi A were 11.67, and 12.33 mm, respectively. Two different levels of postbiotics (25%, and 50%) were used in LDB to measure the diamines (cadaverine and putrescine), polyamines (agmatine, spermidine, and spermine, ammonia), and other biogenic amine formation by pathogens. E. coli produced cadaverine and putrescine with concentrations of 1072.21 and 1114.18 mg/L, respectively. The postbiotics reduced cadaverine formation by 67% in E. coli, and cadaverine production was mostly suppressed by postbiotics from P. acidilactici in E. coli (97%) and L. lactis subsp. lactis in S. paratyphi A (90%). Putrescine production by E. coli was reduced by 94% with postbiotics of P. acidilactici at a concentration of 25%, whereas putrescine production by S. paratyphi A has been decreased by 61% in the presence of postbiotics from L. lactis subsp. Lactis with a 25% concentration. The results revealed that an increase in postbiotics concentration (from 25% to 50%) in LDB may lead to synergistic effects, resulting from the production of biogenic amines by microbial pathogens. It was importantly concluded that postbiotics of LAB may degrade biogenic amines or prevent their formation by foodborne pathogens.

The Role of Polyamines in the Mechanisms of Cognitive Impairment

—As the population ages, age-related cognitive impairments are becoming an increasingly pressing problem. Currently, the role of polyamines (putrescine, spermidine, and spermine) in the pathogenesis of cognitive impairments of various origin is actively discussed. It was shown that the content of polyamines in the brain tissue decreases with age. Exogenous administration of polyamines makes it possible to avoid cognitive impairment and/or influence the pathogenetic processes associated with disease progression. There are 3 known ways that polyamines can enter the human body: food, synthesis by intestinal bacteria, and biosynthesis in the body. Currently, one of the most promising approaches to the prevention of cognitive impairment is the use of foods with a high content of polyamines, as well as the use of various probiotics that affect intestinal bacteria that synthesize polyamines. Since 2018, in a number of European countries projects have been launched aimed at evaluation of the impact of a diet high in polyamines on cognitive processes. The review, based on analysis of modern scientific literature and the authors' own data, presents material on the effect of polyamines on cognitive processes and the role of polyamines in the regulation of neurotransmitter processes, and discusses the role of polyamines in cognitive disorders in mental and neurological diseases.

Identification and Characterization of Novel Small-Molecule SMOX Inhibitors.

The major intracellular polyamines spermine and spermidine are abundant and ubiquitous compounds that are essential for cellular growth and development. Spermine catabolism is mediated by spermine oxidase (SMOX), a highly inducible flavin-dependent amine oxidase that is upregulated during excitotoxic, ischemic, and inflammatory states. In addition to the loss of radical scavenging capabilities associated with spermine depletion, the catabolism of spermine by SMOX results in the production of toxic byproducts, including H2O2 and acrolein, a highly toxic aldehyde with the ability to form adducts with DNA and inactivate vital cellular proteins. Despite extensive evidence implicating SMOX as a key enzyme contributing to secondary injury associated with multiple pathologic states, the lack of potent and selective inhibitors has significantly impeded the investigation of SMOX as a therapeutic target. In this study, we used a virtual and physical screening approach to identify and characterize a series of hit compounds with inhibitory activity against SMOX. We now report the discovery of potent and highly selective SMOX inhibitors 6 (IC50 0.54 μM, Ki 1.60 μM) and 7 (IC50 0.23 μM, Ki 0.46 μM), which are the most potent SMOX inhibitors reported to date. We hypothesize that these selective SMOX inhibitors will be useful as chemical probes to further elucidate the impact of polyamine catabolism on mechanisms of cellular injury.

Impact of 24-epibrassinolide, spermine, and silicon on plant growth, antioxidant defense systems, and osmolyte accumulation of maize under water stress

The effect of triad application of the phytohormone 24-epibrassinolide (EBL), the polyamine spermine (Spm), and the element silicon (Si) has not yet been considered on plant growth and behavior in water-stressed conditions. We aimed to evaluate the impact of single/dual/triad application of 24-epibrassinolide (EBL), spermine (Spm), and silicon (Si) on the growth, photosynthetic metabolites, and antioxidant enzymes in the maize plant exposed to water stress. This study was conducted as a potential drought resistance system and plants' maintenance against oxidative damage. In this regard, one maize hybrid (Paya) was grown under well-watered and water-deficit conditions (interrupted irrigation at the flowering and the filling seed stages) with and without foliar spraying of EBL, Spm, and/or Si. Drought conditions remarkably reduced growth, productivity, water-related content (RWC), and chlorophyll content. However, the dual and triad applications of EBL (0.1 mg L−1), Spm (25 mg L−1), and Si (7 mg L−1) significantly improved the above parameters. Water stress considerably augmented the levels of H2O2 and MDA. Their content in stress-subjected plants was significantly reduced by triad application. In water-stressed circumstances and after foliar treatments, the activities of superoxide dismutase, catalase, and peroxidase as well as the amounts of total soluble proteins, phenolic compounds, proline, and glycine betaine all improved. Overall, triad application increased the plant's drought resistance and diminished ROS accumulation by raising the scavenging via the enhanced activity of the antioxidant enzymes.

Polyamines and ethylene action blocker (STS) effectively augment longevity and postharvest attributes in isolated flowers of Digitalis purpurea L.

The present investigation focused on the study of the exogenous inclusion of anti-senescence biogenic polyamines (putrescine, spermidine and spermine) and ethylene antagonist silver thiosulphate on flower longevity and postharvest performance in excised flowers of Digitalis purpurea L. At one day before anthesis stage, isolated buds of Digitalis purpurea were transported to the laboratory in distilled water. The samples were divided into five sets with one set of flower buds (i.e., control) held in distilled water. The remaining four sets were respectively supplied with 0.5, 1 and 1.5 mM of putrescine (PUT), 0.1, 0.2 and 0.3 mM of spermidine (SPD), 0.2, 0.4 and 0.6 mM of spermine (SPM), 0.1, 0.2 and 0.3 mM of silver thiosulphate (STS). The inclusion of polyamines and STS in holding solutions enhanced the flower longevity of D. purpurea significantly compared to the control. The results indicated that the flower longevity of 14 days was recorded in 0.4 mM of spermine, followed by 13 days in 1 mM PUT, 12.5 days in 0.2 mM SPD and 12 days in 0.2 mM STS. This enhanced flower longevity corroborated with the higher values of soluble proteins, total sugars, floral diameter and membrane stability index. The improved flower longevity was also found to be positively associated with increased activities of various antioxidant enzymes viz., superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and ascorbate peroxidase (APX) and reduced activity of lipoxygenase (LOX). The flowers supplemented with different treatments retained a lower phenolic content than the control. This research concluded that polyamines and STS have a profound impact on the flower longevity of Digitalis flowers. SPM was found to be a more potential polyamine in augmenting the postharvest performance in isolated flowers of D. purpurea.

Recent Advances in Fluorescent Methods for Polyamine Detection and the Polyamine Suppressing Strategy in Tumor Treatment.

The biogenic aliphatic polyamines (spermine, spermidine, and putrescine) are responsible for numerous cell functions, including cell proliferation, the stabilization of nucleic acid conformations, cell division, homeostasis, gene expression, and protein synthesis in living organisms. The change of polyamine concentrations in the urine or blood is usually related to the presence of malignant tumors and is regarded as a biomarker for the early diagnosis of cancer. Therefore, the detection of polyamine levels in physiological fluids can provide valuable information in terms of cancer diagnosis and in monitoring therapeutic effects. In this review, we summarize the recent advances in fluorescent methods for polyamine detection (supramolecular fluorescent sensing systems, fluorescent probes based on the chromophore reaction, fluorescent small molecules, and fluorescent nanoparticles). In addition, tumor polyamine-suppressing strategies (such as polyamine conjugate, polyamine analogs, combinations that target multiple components, spermine-responsive supramolecular chemotherapy, a combination of polyamine consumption and photodynamic therapy, etc.) are highlighted. We hope that this review promotes the development of more efficient polyamine detection methods and provides a comprehensive understanding of polyamine-based tumor suppressor strategies.

Utilization of Aminoguanidine Prevents Cytotoxic Effects of Semen.

Studies of human semen in cell or tissue culture are hampered by the high cytotoxic activity of this body fluid. The components responsible for the cell damaging activity of semen are amine oxidases, which convert abundant polyamines, such as spermine or spermidine in seminal plasma into toxic intermediates. Amine oxidases are naturally present at low concentrations in seminal plasma and at high concentrations in fetal calf serum, a commonly used cell culture supplement. Here, we show that, in the presence of fetal calf serum, seminal plasma, as well as the polyamines spermine and spermidine, are highly cytotoxic to immortalized cells, primary blood mononuclear cells, and vaginal tissue. Thus, experiments investigating the effect of polyamines and seminal plasma on cellular functions should be performed with great caution, considering the confounding cytotoxic effects. The addition of the amine oxidase inhibitor aminoguanidine to fetal calf serum and/or the utilization of serum-free medium greatly reduced this serum-induced cytotoxicity of polyamines and seminal plasma in cell lines, primary cells, and tissues and, thus, should be implemented in all future studies analyzing the role of polyamines and semen on cellular functions.

Effect of biogenic polyamines on sliding motility of mycobacteria in the presence of antibiotics.

Nowadays, sliding is the least investigated mode of bacterial motility. Sliding is a process of passive movement on the surface of semi-liquid mediums which was originally described for mycobacteria and other bacterial species deprived of the organelles specialized for movement. Some mycobacteria are able to colonize surfaces, including tissues of macro-organisms, using glycopeptidolipids localized in the cell envelope for this aim. This is a serious problem for effective therapy of mycobacteriosis caused by nontuberculosis mycobacteria. Furthermore, animal tissues contain biogenic polyamines, which can increase tolerance of microorganisms to stresses, including antibiotics, and modulate cell motility. Therefore, studying mutual effects of biogenic polyamines and antibiotics on the expansion of mycobacteria is important for medicine. Mycobacterial strains, including the parent Mycolicibacterium smegmatis mc2 155 and strains containing single (ΔrelMsm) or double (ΔrelMsmΔrelZ) deletions, were used as the objects of this study. The content of glycopeptidolipids was determined using thin layer chromatography. Sliding motility was assessed by measuring the area of the sliding colony. The effectiveness of antibiotics was measured by comparison of the areas of sliding colonies in the presence of comparable concentrations of antibiotics. The polyamines spermidine and spermine had different effects on the sliding of mycobacteria through an increase or decrease in the colony areas. At the same time, polyamines had neither bactericidal nor bacteriostatic effects. The polyamines contained in the medium decreased the bactericidal effects of the antibiotics streptomycin or isoniazid, but enhanced the effects of DMNP, a synthetic analogue of the natural antibiotic erogorgiaene. Rifampicin was the most effective of all antibiotics investigated here. Moreover, we found that glycopeptidolipids are, apparently, not the only regulators of mycobacterial sliding.

Polyamine and Ethanolamine Metabolism in Bacteria as an Important Component of Nitrogen Assimilation for Survival and Pathogenicity.

Nitrogen is an essential element required for bacterial growth. It serves as a building block for the biosynthesis of macromolecules and provides precursors for secondary metabolites. Bacteria have developed the ability to use various nitrogen sources and possess two enzyme systems for nitrogen assimilation involving glutamine synthetase/glutamate synthase and glutamate dehydrogenase. Microorganisms living in habitats with changeable availability of nutrients have developed strategies to survive under nitrogen limitation. One adaptation is the ability to acquire nitrogen from alternative sources including the polyamines putrescine, cadaverine, spermidine and spermine, as well as the monoamine ethanolamine. Bacterial polyamine and monoamine metabolism is not only important under low nitrogen availability, but it is also required to survive under high concentrations of these compounds. Such conditions can occur in diverse habitats such as soil, plant tissues and human cells. Strategies of pathogenic and non-pathogenic bacteria to survive in the presence of poly- and monoamines offer the possibility to combat pathogens by using their capability to metabolize polyamines as an antibiotic drug target. This work aims to summarize the knowledge on poly- and monoamine metabolism in bacteria and its role in nitrogen metabolism.

Polyamines and Their Metabolism: From the Maintenance of Physiological Homeostasis to the Mediation of Disease.

The polyamines spermidine and spermine are positively charged aliphatic molecules. They are critical in the regulation of nucleic acid and protein structures, protein synthesis, protein and nucleic acid interactions, oxidative balance, and cell proliferation. Cellular polyamine levels are tightly controlled through their import, export, de novo synthesis, and catabolism. Enzymes and enzymatic cascades involved in polyamine metabolism have been well characterized. This knowledge has been used for the development of novel compounds for research and medical applications. Furthermore, studies have shown that disturbances in polyamine levels and their metabolic pathways, as a result of spontaneous mutations in patients, genetic engineering in mice or experimentally induced injuries in rodents, are associated with multiple maladaptive changes. The adverse effects of altered polyamine metabolism have also been demonstrated in in vitro models. These observations highlight the important role these molecules and their metabolism play in the maintenance of physiological normalcy and the mediation of injury. This review will attempt to cover the extensive and diverse knowledge of the biological role of polyamines and their metabolism in the maintenance of physiological homeostasis and the mediation of tissue injury.

Involvement of Polyamines in Physiological Reactions of Herbicide-treated Wheat Seedlings Subjected to Drought and Waterlogging Stress

Polyamines are plant growth regulators, which take part in plant growth and development, as well as in the physiological responses to diverse biotic and abiotic stresses. Drought and waterlogging are environmental stress factors that disturb normal plant growth. In our study, we determined the content of polyamines spermine, spermidine, and putrescine in young wheat seedlings (Triticum aestivum L., cv. Sadovo-1) pretreated with herbicide Serrate® (Syngenta) and subjected for 7 days to drought or waterlogging. We found that when applied alone the herbicide caused some decrease in polyamine levels but it was not substantial as compared to drought and waterlogging stresses. Obvious reduction of polyamine content was caused by both stress factors when applied alone or in combination with the herbicide. The decrease was more significant in drought-stressed seedlings than in waterlogged. When plants were transferred to normal irrigation regime the polyamine concentrations in drought-stressed plants tended to increase. The waterlogging stress continued to reduce polyamine content even during the recovery period. These data correlate with the growth parameters (fresh weight, height of shoots) indicating the involvement of polyamines in the physiological responses of herbicide-primed wheat seedlings under stress conditions.