Polyaluminum Chloride Coagulation Research Articles

Enhanced Removal of Refractory Organic Compounds from Coking Wastewater Using Polyaluminum Chloride with Coagulant Aids

This study explores the enhanced removal of refractory organic compounds from coking wastewater using polyaluminum chloride (PACl) with two different basicity levels (0.5 and 2.5), in combination with coagulant aids such as cationic polyacrylamide (CPAM) and iron ions. The results demonstrated that both PACl formulations significantly outperformed commercial PACl in terms of COD and color removal, with PACl at the basicity of 2.5 achieving slightly higher efficiency than PACl at the basicity of 0.5. The improved performance was attributed to the higher content of polymeric aluminum species, enhancing charge neutralization and bridging adsorption. The addition of coagulant aids further improved the performance, with PACl at the basicity of 2.5 combined with iron ions achieving the highest COD (48.41%) and color removal (80.77%), due to sweep coagulation and complexation. Organic composition analysis using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS), three-dimensional excitation–emission matrix (3D-EEM) fluorescence spectroscopy, and ultraviolet (UV) spectroscopy indicated that PACl combined with iron ions was the most effective in removing polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and nitrogen-, oxygen-, and sulfur-containing heterocyclic compounds. Additionally, a floc analysis showed that the flocs formed with iron ions were more compact and had better settleability compared to those formed with CPAM, further contributing to the improved coagulation efficiency. These results highlight the importance of optimizing the PACl basicity and coagulant aid selection for the enhanced removal of refractory organic compounds from coking wastewater, offering a promising strategy for advanced wastewater treatment.

Causes of negatively charged meso-colloids formed in the coagulation process: Implication of the origin of foulants in the coagulation–membrane filtration process

Tiny colloids with a size similar to that of membrane pores are responsible for irreversible fouling in the pre-coagulation microfiltration membrane filtration process for drinking water treatment. Such colloidal particles are defined here as meso‑colloids, and the charge neutralization of meso‑colloids is demonstrated to be a key to controlling irreversible fouling. However, meso‑colloids remain negatively charged at neutral pH, the reason for which is still unclear. To increase the efficiency of membrane operation, additional knowledge about the causes and behaviors of meso‑colloids during pre-coagulation is indispensable. Therefore, in this study, meso‑colloids are fractionated after a series of jar tests, and their exact composition and charge properties are characterized. Two natural water samples, the adjusted water consisting of meso‑colloid fraction separated from one of the natural water samples and additional inorganic chemicals, and the adjusted water by the addition of appropriate inorganic chemicals into pure water are used for jar tests, which are conducted with and without the addition of the coagulant polyaluminum chloride (PACl). After the jar tests using two natural water samples, all of the meso‑colloids exhibit a negative charge under the conditions applied for the jar tests, indicating that charge neutralization is difficult. The composition of the meso‑colloids is found to be completely different depending on the water source used. Organic-rich water tends to generate meso‑colloids with a low Al/C (mass ratio of aluminum and organic carbon) ratio. In contrast, organic-poor water tends to produce meso‑colloids with a high Al/C ratio. From the results of the jar tests using two kinds of adjusted water samples, it is found challenging to neutralize meso‑colloids by PACl at neutral pH, because the overdose and underdose of PACl result in negatively charged biopolymer or negatively charged aluminum species. Therefore, the development of a new coagulant for specific use in the coagulation membrane filtration process is proposed, which can minimize the formation of negatively charged species even at neutral pH.

Enhancing pollutants removal in hospital wastewater: Comparative analysis of PAC coagulation vs. bio-contact oxidation, highlighting the impact of outdated treatment plants

While the effectiveness of Poly-Aluminum Chloride (PAC) coagulation for pollutant removal has been documented across various wastewater scenarios, its specific application in hospital wastewater (HWW) treatment to remove conventional pollutants and hazardous genetic pollutants has not been studied. The research compared three hospital wastewater treatment plants (HWTPs) to address a knowledge gap, including the PAC coagulation-sodium hypochlorite disinfection process (PAC-HWTP), the biological contact oxidation-precipitation-sodium hypochlorite process (BCO-HWTP), and a system using outdated equipment with PAC coagulation (ODE-PAC-HWTP). Effluent compliance with national discharge standards is assessed, with BCO-HWTP meeting standards for direct or indirect discharge into natural aquatic environments. ODE-PAC-HWTP exceeds pretreatment standards for COD and BOD5 concentrations. PAC-HWTP effluent largely adheres to national pretreatment standards, enabling release into municipal sewers for further treatment. Metagenomic analysis reveals that PAC-HWTP exhibits higher removal efficiencies for antibiotic resistance genes, metal resistance genes, mobile genetic elements, and pathogens compared to BCO-HWTP and ODE-PAC-HWTP, achieving average removal rates of 45.13%, 57.54%, 80.61%, and 72.17%, respectively. These results suggests that when discharging treated HWW into municipal sewers for further processing, the use of PAC coagulation process is more feasible and cost-effective compared to BCO technologies. The analysis emphasizes the urgent need to upgrade outdated equipment HWTPs.

Polyaluminum chloride (PAC) modification of dispersive soil: A comprehensive study on dispersivity, mechanical properties, and microscale mechanisms

The engineering problems caused by dispersive soil are of worldwide concern. Traditional high carbon emission soil amendments such as cement and lime cause several environmental problems, including pollution and soil alkalization. Inorganic polymers are considered to be an economical, effective, and environmentally friendly soil amendment. Therefore, this paper proposes the use of the polymeric coagulant polyaluminum chloride (PAC) to improve soil dispersivity. PAC was added to the dispersive soils at different dry mass ratios of 0%, 0.5%, 1%, 1.5%, 2.5%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, and 10%. The soil samples were then cured for 1, 4, 7, 14, and 28 days. Soil dispersivity was determined by crumb tests, pinhole tests, and exchangeable sodium ion percentage tests. Soil mechanical strength was assessed through unconfined compressive strength tests and unconsolidated undrained triaxial tests. Particle size distribution, pH, resistivity, X-ray diffraction, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and scanning electron microscopy tests were conducted to investigate soil improvement mechanisms. Experimental results indicate that 1.5% PAC can transform highly dispersive soil into non-dispersive soil after 1 day of curing. When the PAC content increases from 0% to 7%, the unconfined compressive strength of the soil increases by 110.1%, and the internal friction angle and cohesion increase by 61.1% and 24.2%, respectively. The changes in the physicochemical properties and microstructure of the soil indicate the high-valence cations produced by PAC hydrolysis can effectively replace Na+ in the soil, while significantly reducing the pH value of the soil. Simultaneously, the coagulation effect generated markedly reduces soil porosity, resulting in a more compact soil structure. In summary, PAC demonstrates excellent potential in improving soil dispersivity and mechanical properties. Compared to traditional high carbon emission amendments such as cement and lime, PAC can effectively reduce soil alkalinity, mitigate environmental issues associated with these materials, and offer new possibilities for improving dispersive soils.

Investigating the improvement of the quality of industrial effluents for reuse with added processes: coagulation, flocculation, multi-layer filter and UV

Reuse of wastewater is one of the ways to develop water resources. In addition to the need for drinking water, many industries also need high-quality water in the production line. Therefore, the purpose of the present study is to investigate the advanced treatment of the wastewater treatment plant of Morche Khort industrial town using the processes of coagulation, flocculation with aeration, multi-layer filter, and disinfection by ultraviolet radiation to increase the quality of wastewater and reuse it in industries. In this study, to investigate the effect of coagulation and flocculation units along with aeration, filtration, and disinfection by ultraviolet rays (UV), on the quality of the secondary effluent from the wastewater treatment plant of Morche Khort industrial town, they were operated on a pilot scale. Polyaluminum chloride (PAC) was used as a coagulant. Layering of three layers of sand filter, from bottom to top including granulated silica at a height of 10 cm, sand at a height of 20 cm, and activated carbon at a height of 70 cm was used. The input and output sampling points of each unit were considered. By repeating twice in five stages of flow rates of 1, 2, 4, 6, and 8 (L/min), the samples were collected to determine COD, TSS, TDS, turbidity, pH, hardness, total coliform, and fecal coliform. Jar test results showed that Alum coagulant works almost the same as PAC in removing turbidity, but the efficiency of removing organic substances by PAC coagulant is higher than that of Alum at lower doses. The results of this study showed that the efficiency of the coagulation and flocculation process in removing turbidity, COD, TSS, TDS, and fat was 56.88%, 46.66%, 38%, 23.19%, and 91.43% respectively. In the current study, the results of the wastewater entering the sand filter showed that the percentage of removal efficiency with a loading rate of 1 (L/min) was turbidity, TSS, COD, TDS, and fat was 16. 93%, 56.84%, 50%, 5.67%, 33.44% respectively. In the UV disinfection unit, the removal efficiency percentage with a loading rate of 1 (L/min) for COD, TSS, turbidity, hardness, total coliform, and fecal coliform is 16%, 3.45%, 3.58%, 5.21%, 99.88%, and 98.37% respectively. Coagulation and flocculation system—multi-layer filter and disinfection can remove chemical–physical and microbial parameters to an acceptable level for using water in advanced purification systems and also for irrigation.

Removal of algae from ballast water by cationic flocculant-composite titanium xerogel coagulant: Differences in freshwater and seawater

The treatment of ballast water has been garnering increasing attention, with planktonic algae removal being a crucial part. Coagulation has been demonstrated as an effective method for algae removal, albeit few coagulants exhibit excellent coagulation performance in both freshwater and seawater. To address this issue, the cationic flocculant poly dimethyl diallyl ammonium chloride (PDADMAC) was composited with titanium xerogel coagulant (TXC), abbreviated as PT. Using the algae Cyclotella meneghiniana as the research object, the algal removal performance and mechanisms of PT in freshwater and seawater were investigated. Cell integrity, superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity, and malondialdehyde (MDA) content of C. meneghiniana during floc storage were also evaluated. The PT composite coagulant exhibited excellent coagulation performance in both freshwater and seawater. Its algal removal ability was superior to TXC and the commercial coagulants polyaluminum chloride (PAC) and polymerized ferrous sulfate (PFS), with removal rates for C. meneghiniana reaching 98.3 % in freshwater and 98.4 % in seawater at a 80 mg/L dosage. PT also exhibited excellent removal performance over wide dosage and pH ranges. PT acted via distinct coagulation mechanisms in freshwater and seawater, with charge neutralization and bridging played major roles in freshwater and sweeping being important in seawater. The floc storage experiment indicated that the coagulation process did not directly lead to algal cell fragmentation, but PT accelerated and exacerbated oxidative stress and oxidative damage to algal cells during floc storage. Furthermore, PT also showed excellent removal performance for the marine diatom Skeletonema costatum and the freshwater cyanobacteria Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii. This work not only provides a novel approach for algae removal in ballast water, but also enhances our understanding of the coagulation behavior of titanium-based coagulants in different water environments.

Controlling membrane fouling of nanofiltration using poly-aluminum chloride and Moringa oleifera coagulants

Membrane fouling control during nanofiltration (NF) of contaminated water sources is critical to establishing a cost-efficient advanced drinking water treatment system. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of pre-coagulation using Moringa oleifera (MO) or poly-aluminum chloride (PACl) coagulant on membrane fouling mitigation and final water quality during NF treatment of lake water. This study used four pre-coagulation methods: (i) full coagulation: coagulation-flocculation-sedimentation, (ii) coagulation and flocculation, (iii) rapid mixing alone, and (iv) without coagulant addition. The full coagulation with PACl or MO before NF treatment mitigated membrane fouling, and the optimum PACl or MO coagulant doses achieved the lowest membrane fouling. PACl or MO pre-coagulation with rapid mixing also mitigated membrane fouling, which suggested the potential use of inline coagulation. Turbidity in the coagulated water was the best indicator to predict the level of NF membrane fouling; thus, turbidity in the pre-coagulated water can be utilized to control NF membrane fouling. Regardless of the types of pre-coagulation methods, turbidity and dissolved organic matter concentrations in the NF permeate were equivalent. The results suggest that nanofiltration coupled with inline pre-coagulation can provide high-quality water.

Cell viability changes coagulation efficiency of polyaluminium chloride for cyanobacteria-laden source water treatment

Cyanobacterial blooms challenge drinking water safety, and polyaluminium chloride (PACl) coagulation is crucial in treating algal-laden source water in drinking water treatment plants (DWTPs). The cell viability of cyanobacteria declines at the bloom decay stage, which may affect the coagulation process. Most studies have focused on high-viability cells, not low-viability cells. Herein, PACl coagulation experiments were conducted to compare the removal efficiencies of high- and low-viability Microcystis, and the effects of cellular properties and extracellular organic matter (dEOM) on their removal efficiency were discussed. The removal efficiency of low-viability cells (38.3–99.3 %) was higher than that of high-viability cells (14.5–85.9 %) after coagulation-sedimentation, owing to the declining cellular buoyancy and enhanced adsorptive interaction with Al(OH)3(am) via increased aromatics/peptides containing functional groups of aromatic, OH, NH, CN on their hydrophobic cellular surface. By contrast, together with in situ dEOM, the removal efficiency of low-viability cells (1.3–90.5 %) became much lower than that of high-viability cells (2.2–98.2 %) even with a higher ratio of [PACl: DOC], due to elevated low molecular weight (MW) peptides of <10 kDa in dEOM impeding the coagulation removal of low-viability cells via chelation and negative charge supply. Additionally, a decrease in the removal ratio of dEOM was observed, and peptides (<10 kDa) in the residual dEOM increased by 93–100 %. Overall, this study demonstrated that the declining cell viability could strongly affect the coagulation efficiency of algal-laden source water, and the optimization of the coagulation process by water managers should depend on the cell viability of cyanobacteria.

Synthesis of Polyaluminum Chloride Coagulant from Waste Aluminum Foil and Utilization in Petroleum Wastewater Treatment

This work investigates the potential synthesis of cost-effective polyaluminum chloride (PACl) coagulant from waste household aluminum foil and utilization for treating petroleum wastewater (PWW), especially dissolved organic compounds (DOC, like octanol–water mixture) and nonsettleable suspended (NSS-kaolin) mineral particles. Based on the Standard Practice for Coagulation–Flocculation Jar Test, the efficiency of PACl for DOC and NSS removal was evaluated in relation to the effects of the operational parameters. The results demonstrated that the as-prepared PACl has an amorphous morphology with a Keggin-type e-Al13 molecular structure {Na[AlO4(OH)24(H2O)]·xH2O and good thermal stability up to 278 °C. PACl coagulant also exhibited a higher efficiency for NSS removal than DOC by around 1.5- to 1.9-fold under broad pH (5–7), while a higher acidic/alkaline pH disrupts the sweep floc formation. An increased PACl dosage (over 25 mg/L) also caused a decrease in the coagulation efficiency by 11.7% due to Al species’ transformation and pH depression (from 6.8 to 4.9) via increased PACl hydrolysis. With a fast rotating speed of 280 rpm for 2 min, the minimum dose of PACl (10–25 mg/L) can maximize the removal efficiency of NSS (~98%) and DOC (~69%) at pH 6.5 ± 0.5 and 35 °C after 30 min of settling time. Treating actual saline PWW samples (salinity up to 187.7 g/L) also verified the high efficacy of PACl coagulation performance in reducing the turbidity and dissolved hydrocarbons by more than 75.5% and 67.7%, respectively. These findings verify the techno-economic feasibility of the as-prepared PACl coagulant in treating PWW treatment at different salinity levels.

Application of a novel zirconium coagulant in the coagulation-ultrafiltration process: Fluoride removal and membrane fouling alleviation

Groundwater fluoride pollution is a worldwide problem that threatens human health and drinking water. Economical and efficient coagulation is the most widely used defluorination technology. The fluoride removal efficiency depends on the complexation and adsorption capacities of the hydrolyzed metal salt coagulant, so the development of new metal coagulants is the key to coagulation defluorination technology. In this study, novel polymeric zirconium salt coagulants (ZXCs) were prepared by the sol-gel method. Their capabilities in coagulation and coagulation-ultrafiltration processes were evaluated and compared with those of the traditional polyaluminum chloride (PAC) and polyferric sulfate (PFS) coagulants. ZXC exhibited more effective fluoride removal than PAC and PFS, and the fluoride removal rates of ZXC, PAC and PFS were 81.0 %, 24.7 % and 5.4 % with the optimized dosages of 0.30 mM and pHs of 5.0, 6.0 and 5.0, respectively. With an initial fluoride concentration of 4.0 mg/L, 0.30 and 1.5 mM doses of ZXC reduced the fluoride concentrations to 0.76 and 0.13 mg/L. The structures and properties of ZXC and the flocs were characterized with Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), X-ray Diffraction (XRD), X-ray photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) surface area determinations. The series characterization and hydrolysis precipitation area map showed that adsorption onto hydroxyl groups and ion exchange with surface hydroxyl groups were the main pathways for fluoride removal by ZXC. In the coagulation-ultrafiltration defluorination process, the highly polymerized ZXC was fully hydrolyzed under acidic conditions to form larger and looser flocs with almost no dissolved residue, which substantially reduced membrane fouling. This work provides new insights into the development of materials and technologies for fluoride removal from drinking water.

Optimum Conditions for Enhancing Chitosan-Assisted Coagulation in Drinking Water Treatment

Coagulant aids are useful chemicals that enhance the efficiency of coagulation sedimentation treatment. For this purpose, it is necessary to choose safe chemicals to avoid various risks to the health of those who use the treated water. The use of chitosan, an abundant natural polysaccharide, as a coagulant aid is significant not only for safe water treatment but also for the effective utilization of unused natural water resources, which are mostly wasted. We experimentally determined the optimal treatment conditions for using chitosan as a coagulant aid in water treatment. The most efficient use was identified as adding chitosan at the stage of rapid stirring after the addition of coagulant accelerated initial dispersion. When used with the main coagulant polyaluminum chloride (PACl), the optimal concentration of chitosan was 0.8 mg L−1, as estimated using the ζ potential showing isoelectricity at the optimal chitosan concentration. Determining the chitosan concentration using the minimum ζ potential was also valid for estimating the optimum concentration of chitosan, which is an extension of the method used at much higher turbidity, as seen in wastewater. Thus, the ζ potential-based prediction of the optimum chitosan concentration was effective even when the effect of sweep coagulation, which is normally induced at higher turbidity, was negligible. The superiority of using the coagulant PACl in combination with chitosan as the coagulant aid was demonstrated by comparing the in situ-observed coagulation process to cases with other coagulants and coagulant aids using direct time-series observation of the coagulation process. The use of chitosan with PACl was found to make the flocs easier to remove because it resulted in the largest mass fraction of the resultant floc sedimentation on the bottom of the vessel. In this study, using the PACl coagulant in combination with chitosan as the coagulant aid was found to be as viable as using the current popular combination of aluminum sulfate and polyacrylamide. Replacing polyacrylamide with chitosan contributed to reducing the potential risk to the health of those to use the treated water.

Coagulation studies on photodegraded and photocatalytically degraded polystyrene microplastics using polyaluminium chloride

Microplastics are ubiquitous persistent emerging contaminants, and its presence has been detected even in the most pristine and fragile ecosystems. Advanced oxidation processes are one of the novel degradation technologies used for the elimination of microplastics from the environment. In this study, the effect of ultraviolet C (UV-C, 253.7 nm) and ultraviolet A (UV-A, 365 nm) irradiations on polystyrene (PS) microplastic properties in the presence and absence of titanium dioxide were studied along with their coagulation performances using polyaluminium chloride (PAC). The effects of solar irradiation on the chemical properties of microplastics in aqueous and dry conditions were also investigated. PS microplastics (1.5 g) in three size ranges, 300–150 μm, 150–75 μm, and <75 μm were used during this experiment. After 45 days of irradiation, samples showed discolouration, brittleness, and loss of hydrophobicity. Images obtained from scanning electron microscope revealed smoothening and melting of PS surfaces upon UV exposure. Attenuated total reflectance- Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and X-ray photon spectroscopy of photoaged samples revealed chemical alterations, bond cleavage and formation of oxygenated functional groups on microplastic surfaces. PAC coagulation of samples before and after UV irradiation showed drastic differences in removal efficiencies, with UV-C irradiated microplastics exhibiting maximum efficiency. Large sized and photocatalytically degraded microplastics showed better removal efficiencies than small sized particles. The 300–150 μm sized PS microplastic, degraded photo catalytically under UV-C irradiation showed approximately 99 % removal efficiency, while PS < 75 μm photodegraded under UV-A irradiation showed only 74.2 % removal efficiency.

Removal of Nano-Zinc Oxide (nZnO) from Simulated Waters by C/F/S—Focusing on the Role of Synthetic Coating, Organic Ligand, and Solution Chemistry

Increased usage of nano-zinc oxide (nZnO) in different commercial fields has raised serious concerns regarding their discharge into the water streams containing natural and synthetic coating agents. Moreover, utilization of ground and surface water for drinking purposes is a common approach in many countries. Therefore, the removal of nZnO particles from water is essential to minimize the risk to the environment. The present research investigated the removal of nZnO from complex water matrices by conventional coagulation-flocculation-sedimentation (C/F/S) process using polyaluminum chloride (PACl) as coagulants. The result showed that removal of uncoated nZnO through sedimentation was efficient in waters containing divalent cations in the absence of dissolved organic matter (DOM). For the water containing higher salt concentration, PACl coagulant showed better removal performance with increasing coagulant dosage; however, synthetic organic coating agent and DOM significantly decreased the removal up to 75%. The surface potential of studied waters indicated that the addition of PACl affects the charge potential of nZnO particles resulting in charge neutralization. The result of the particle size analyzer revealed the presence of smaller particles with size of 430 nm even after C/F/S process, which may increase the possibility of particles release into aquatic environment. The results of the present study may help in understating the removal behavior of other coated nanoparticles during conventional water treatment.

New insights into membrane fouling in coagulation-ultrafiltration by cake characteristics analysis: A case study with PACl-Al13 and PACl

Membrane fouling is a bottleneck issue that hindered the further application of ultrafiltration technology. To alleviate membrane fouling, coagulation-ultrafiltration (C-UF) process using polyaluminum chloride (PACl) and PACl-Al13 with high proportion of Al13O4(OH)247+ as coagulants, respectively, were investigated at various pH conditions. Results indicated that an increase in solution pH contributed to larger floc size and looser floc structure for both PACl and PACl-Al13. It was conducive to the formation of more porous cake, as evidenced by mean pore area and pore area distribution of cake, leading to lower reversible fouling. Furthermore, humic acid (HA) removal presented a trend of first increasing and then decreasing with the increase of pH. The optimal HA removal was achieved at pH 6 regardless of coagulant type, suggesting that the slightest irreversible fouling should be occurred at this point. Interestingly, the irreversible fouling with PACl coagulant achieved a minimum value at pH 9, while the minimal irreversible fouling with PACl-Al13 was observed at pH 6. We speculated that the cake formed by PACl could further intercept HA prior to UF process at alkaline pH. Furthermore, compared with PACl, PACl-Al13 had a stronger charge neutralization ability, thus contributing to more compact floc structure and higher HA removal at various pH conditions. By UF fractionation measurement, higher HA removal for PACl-Al13 was due to higher removal of HA with molecular weight less than 50 kDa.

Application of xanthan gum as coagulant-aid for decolorization of synthetic Congo red wastewater

In recent years, utilization of polysaccharides as natural coagulant and coagulant-aid has become a topic of interest, due to the nature of biopolymers that are renewable, biodegradable, and non-toxic. In this study, Congo red, as a model dye substance, was treated using polyaluminium chloride (PAC) as the main coagulant and xanthan gum as the coagulant aid. For this purpose, the effect of pH (3–9), xanthan gum dose (0.5–4 mg/L), and the initial concentration of Congo red dye (50–100 mg/L) to the dye removal and sludge volume were investigated. The outcome of this investigation indicates that the best pH for Congo red coagulation occurred at pH 3, due to the charge neutralization mechanism. The addition of coagulant-aid dose increases the %-removal and sludge volume until reaching the best coagulant-aid dose of 2 mg/L that results in a %-removal value of 93.81% and a sludge volume of 23.5 mL/L. Further addition of xanthan gum reduced the %-removal and sludge volume due to the inter-polymer force causing more difficult floc formation. The best initial concentration of dye occurred at a Congo red concentration of 50 mg/L, with a %-removal value of 93.81% with PAC (15 mg/L) and xanthan gum (2 mg/L) coagulants. This value is considerably higher than PAC and xanthan gum only which amounts to 81.16 and 7.18%, respectively. Based on these results, it is apparent that xanthan gum can positively contribute to dye coagulation while reducing the use of harmful inorganic coagulant.

Overlooked effect of ordinary inorganic ions on polyaluminum-chloride coagulation treatment

Application of poly-aluminum chloride (PACl) coagulant is a popular mode of water treatment worldwide because of the high capacity of PACl to neutralize charge. The manufacture and use of PACls with various basicities in different regions around the world suggest that the characteristics of the raw water are important determinants of the efficacy of PACl application. However, attention has not been fully paid to the effects of water quality other than the substances to be removed. In this study, two typical PACls with different basicities were used to investigate why the performance of PACls depends on the characteristics of the raw water. We focused on the concentrations of inorganic ions in the raw water. Use of high-basicity PACl (HB-PACl) with a high content of polymeric-colloidal species (Alb+Alc) resulted in very slow floc formation and little turbidity removal in raw water with low concentrations of sulfate ions. The performance of the HB-PACl was inferior to that of normal-basicity PACl (NB-PACl), although the charge-neutralization capacity of the HB-PACl was higher. Rates of floc formation were strongly correlated with the rate of aluminum precipitation by hydrolysis reaction, which was identified as an indicator for evaluating the compatibility of raw water with PACl treatment. Among the common ions in natural water, the sulfate ion had the greatest ability to hydrolyze and precipitate PACl because of its divalency and tetrahedral structure. This conclusion followed from experimental results showing similar effects for selenate and chromate ions as for sulfate ions and somewhat smaller effects for thiosulfate ions. Bicarbonate ions and natural organic matter affected PACl hydrolysis-precipitation, but chloride ions, nitrate ions, and cations had little effect on PACl hydrolysis-precipitation. Interestingly, the abilities of sulfate ions to hydrolyze HB-PACl and NB-PACl were very similar, but bicarbonate ions were less effective in hydrolyzing HB-PACl than NB-PACl, and bicarbonate ions contributed little to the hydrolysis-precipitation of HB-PACl in raw water with normal alkalinity. Therefore, sufficient coagulation with HB-PACl therefore usually requires a certain concentration of sulfate ions in water to be treated. The implication is that which anions are most influential to the hydrolysis-precipitation of PACl, and thus to PACl's coagulation ability depends on the constituents of the PACl.

Application of Response Surface Methodology to Optimize Coagulation Treatment Process of Urban Drinking Water Using Polyaluminium Chloride

Many coagulants such as aluminium sulfate, ferric sulfate, and ferrous sulfate have been investigated in the past, but there is a lack of data on their effectiveness to some specific water quality parameters. This study aimed at investigating the efficiency of the coagulation water treatment process to remove pollutants such as total organic carbon (TOC), total nitrogen (TN), and total suspended solids (TSS) from urban drinking water. The polyaluminium chloride (PAC) coagulant was applied to determine the impact of the treatment process on the structure and diversity of these pollutants in urban drinking water. All water samples were collected from the Yangtze River, Baoshan district, Shanghai, China, over a period of three months which coincided with the late summer and early winter periods. Specific to different coagulant characterizations, a preliminary test was performed with three other coagulants, namely, aluminium sulfate, polyaluminium, silicate sulfate, and ferric sulfate to determine their optimal conditions for floc characterization and removal efficiencies. In summary, the overall performance of the PAC coagulant was better than that of the other three coagulants used in the pre-treatment of the sampled water. The obtained results revealed that under the optimum operating conditions, the doses of the PAC were as follows: 20, 35, 50, 65, and 80 mgL−1, respectively. The water temperature and pH were determined by using a pH meter, the TOC and TN determined by using a TOC analyzer, and the TSS by following the ASTM D2540 method. Furthermore, the response surface methodology by the Box–Behnken optimization analysis was applied to coagulant dosage, temperature, pH, and three corresponding dependent factors (TSS, TOC, and TN) to determine the best optimal conditions for the PAC performance. To determine whether or not the quadratic model adequately explained and predicted the response during the coagulation process, an analysis of variance was performed. Multiple optimal factors were identified for the urban drinking water treatment, including a pH value of 6.9, water temperature of 20.1 °C, and a coagulant dosage of 9.7 mgL−1.

Removal effect of trihalomethanes (THMs) and halogenated acetic acids (HAAs) precursors in reclaimed water by polyaluminum chloride (PACl) coagulation.

This study analyzed the removal effect of various doses of polyaluminum chloride (PACI) on wastewater treatment plants at pH 7. The sewage plant's secondary effluent organic matter (EfOM) separates into four components: hydrophobic base (HOB), hydrophilic (HI), hydrophobic acid (HOA), and hydrophobic neutral (HON). The removal effect for various forms of organic waste is optimum at 16 mg/L and that halogenated acetic acids (HAAs) and trihalomethanes (THMs) are formed simultaneously. After PACI treatment, hydrophobic organic compounds were converted to humic acid (HA), fulvic acid (FA), soluble microbial products (SMPs), and other HI organic compounds, increasing the amount of HAAs produced by HI fractions. Removal rate of hydrophobic organic compounds, particularly HON, is 92.8% when using PAC. Moreover, after EfOM coagulation, most HAAs are trichloroacetic acid (TCAA), followed by bromochloroacetic acid (BCAA) and bromodichloroacetic acid (BDCAA). Only HOB can produce monochloroacetic acid (MCAA), whereas HA and SMPs with HOA are primary components of dichloroacetic acid (DCAA). The toughest removable byproduct of THMs is CHBr3, and after condensation of each THM component, only HOA and HON produce CHBr3, while HI produces only a minimal quantity of CHBrCl2 and CHCl3.This finding is critical for understanding how disinfection byproducts are produced after chlorinating EfOM.

Parallel filtration for solid-liquid separation: A case study of highly-efficient algal removal under parallel configuration driven by magnetic force

In traditional membrane filtration systems, the perpendicular permeate flow to the membrane surface causes the retentate to block the membrane pores, which results in an unavoidable cake resistance, thus making it difficult to achieve high filtration flux. In this study, a novel parallel filtration configuration driven by magnetic force was proposed for the removal of Microcystis flos-aquae. The results showed that the filtration flux under parallel filtration configuration reached 750,000 L⋅m−2⋅h−1 which is 3 times higher than the highest flux (280,000 L⋅m−2⋅h−1) reported in previous literature for algal removal. The permeate flow did not need to cross the cake layer, and the “pore size” of the filter chamber can be as high as 10 cm, thus resulting in negligible resistance (2.1 × 101 m−1) and higher filtration flux compared to traditional vertical filtration. For the magnetic-driven parallel filtration, the use of cationic polyacrylamide after polyaluminum chloride coagulation and magnetic particles (MPs) spiking was necessary. Increasing the MPs size and dosage further improved the filtration performance. Moreover, excessive flow velocity would affect the capture probability of algae-MPs aggregates by the magnetic field, which can be overcome by enhancing the magnetic field strength. We have developed a parallel filtration configuration for highly-efficient solid-liquid separation with simple and sustainable processes, which have the potential for rapid, efficient and large-scale applications in product purification, contaminant removal, and resource recycling in the future.

A comparative study on polyaluminum chloride (PACl) and Moringa oleifera (MO) chemically enhanced primary treatment (CEPT) in enhanced biogas production: anaerobic digestion performance and the Gompertz model.

A comparative study was performed to estimate biogas production from sludge produced by organic and inorganic chemically enhanced primary treatments (CEPTs). To this end, the effects of two coagulants, polyaluminum chloride (PACl) and Moringa oleifera (MO), on CEPT and biogas production in anaerobic digestion were surveyed within an incubation period of 24 days. The optimal dosage and pH of PACl and MO were optimized in terms of sCOD, TSS and VS parameters in the CEPT process. Next, the digestion performance of anaerobic digestion reactors fed with sludge obtained from PACl and MO coagulants at a batch mesophilic reactor (37 ± 1 °C) was surveyed from the biogas production, volatile solid reduction (VSR) and Gompertz model. At the optimal conditions (pH = 7 and dosage = 5 mg L-1), the removal efficiency of COD, TSS and VS in CEPT assisted with PACL was 63, 81 and 56%, respectively. Moreover, CEPT assisted with MO led to the removal efficiency of COD, TSS and VS until 55, 68 and 25%, respectively. The highest methane yield (0.598 L gVS removed-1) was obtained in an anaerobic digestion reactor with sludge from the MO coagulant. The anaerobic digestion of CEPT sludge instead of primary sludge resulted in higher sCOD removal efficiency, and 43-50% of sCOD was observed compared with the removal of 32% for the primary sludge. Furthermore, the high coefficient of determination (R2) demonstrated the trustworthy predictive precision of the modified Gompertz model with actual data. The combination of CEPT and anaerobic digestion, especially using natural coagulants, provides a cost-effective and practical way to increase BMP from primary sludge.