Polish Western Carpathians Research Articles

Reflections on land use and land cover change under different socio-economic regimes in the Polish Western Carpathians

Reflections on land use and land cover change under different socio-economic regimes in the Polish Western Carpathians

Land-use changes and their impact on land degradation in the context of sustainable development of the Polish Western Carpathians during the transition to free-market economics (1986-2019)

The objective of this study was to analyse land use and land cover in three catchments of the Polish Western Carpathians, using good practice guidance for estimating land degradation in the context of the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals. Orthophotomap analysis indicates that the vast majority of changes, especially those related to the withdrawal of agriculture, have resulted in land improvement. Relatively minor changes leading to land degradation were associated with pressure from increasing population due to settlement development as well as the conversion of forested areas into grassland. The latter was dominant in the higher mountain catchments.

Results of excavation at the Roman Period site in Podegrodzie, Nowy Sącz district

In the Late Roman and the Early Migration Periods, i.e. the 4th and the early 5th centuries AD, in the Polish Western Carpathians, especially in the Sącz Basin, the adjacent Sącz Beskid Mts and Wyspowy Beskid Mts as well as in the Krosno-Jasło Basin, a significant intensification of settlement is observed. The area has been investigated through archaeological surface surveys and excavations; in the Sącz region, five sites have been excavated with the results published to date. This text presents the results of test excavation at yet another site, Podegrodzie 7, Nowy Sącz district. In the feature investigated there a rare jug ornamented with glossed triangles, several storage vessels of the Krausengefäße type, as well as some organic remains were discovered. Palaeobotanical analysis has shown that common barley (Hordeum vulgare) was the predominant species cultivated by the inhabitants of this territory. The radiocarbon date obtained from a charcoal sample corresponds to the chronology of the site determined by the ceramics typology. The results of the excavation at Podegrodzie 7 site are complemented with a map presenting the location of settlement in that area in the Late Roman and the Early Migration Periods.

What determines the diversity and succession of lichens inhabiting post-bark beetle snags in the Western Carpathians?

The life strategy of Norway spruce allows the recovery of European spruce forests in a scenario of catastrophic disturbances caused by the European spruce bark beetle. However, little is known about how the development of this insect infestation has influenced the preservation of the ecological balance in these forests over the last decades. Based on the upper montane spruce forests in the Polish Western Carpathians, we decided to check what species of lichens are using the decaying wood of post-bark beetle snags and how the progressive changes in wood hardness and stand decomposition affect the process of species exchange. In 2018–2019, we investigated spruce snags on permanent monitoring plots in Gorce National Park, whose cause and time of death have been recorded since 1999, and earlier in 1992 and 1997. The study covered 374 post-bark beetle spruce snags at 76 sites. We found 84 species, including 77 lichens, 6 lichenicolous fungi and one non-lichenised fungus, 15 of which were exclusively wood-inhabiting species in Gorce range. Using generalised linear models, the wood age (A) and the scale of the forest stand breakdown phenomenon (B) were compared with the altitude (C), the aspects of hillside exposure (D) and the forest plant community (E) in the assessment of their effect on lichen species diversity and abundance. "A” was the most important of the tested factors, significantly and positively influencing both parameters, while “B–D” only weakly influenced lichen abundance. Five groups of wood age, significantly different in the lichen abundance and the composition of species were distinguished, and a characteristic combination of dominant species was determined for each of them. Based on the measurements of the wood hardness under the thalli using Shore’s method, the succession of species during the colonisation of the post-bark beetle snags was determined and four groups of species were selected, most frequent in the successive stages of wood decay process. The wood of spruces killed by the bark beetle is both an important substrate enabling the survival of obligately wood-inhabiting lichen species, as well as providing a habitat supporting the maintenance of epiphytes in the Carpathian forests. This study extends the knowledge about the specific requirements of lichens inhabiting spruce snags, as well as the pace and course of lichen succession on this substrate.

The Neolithic Sequence of the Middle Dunajec River Basin (Polish Western Carpathians) and Its Peculiarities

Abstract For some time, there has been more information about the Neolithic settlement on the left bank of the middle Dunajec in the Wiśnicz Foothills. In addition to the intense traces of Linear Pottery Culture, there are clear traces of the continuation of the settlement here at the fifth millennium BC and the beginning of the fourth, which represent groups of the Lengyel-Polgar cycle. These discoveries confirm the high qualities of this part of the Polish Carpathians for early agricultural colonization. Also, the selection for the settlement of the highest landscape zone and hilltops is very characteristic and tells a lot about the specificity of this mountain group for prehistoric settlement, also in the context of the old approaches to the existence of trans-Carpathian passages in the Neolithic.

Corded Ware culture at Zagórze in the Middle Beskid (Polish Western Carpathians)

In 2012, series of archaeological rescue excavations were carried out at Zagórze, due to the construction of the Świnna Poręba retention reservoir on the Skawa river in Wadowice district (Lesser Poland voivodeship). During this research, in one of the excavated sites – no. 8 – a flint tool was discovered below the top of the slope in the diluvial cover, in the secondary position. The preliminary analysis showed that it is a so-called flame knife, characteristic tool of the Corded Ware culture. Sometime later, feature no. 894 was discovered, located approximately 35 meters from the aforementioned flame knife, at the top of the slope. Five fragments of pottery were found in this feature. Four of them have been classified as fragments of CWC ceramics, including fragments of a beaker and an amphora. On the basis of these finds, as well as comparisons to other sites, two hypotheses were formulated regarding the nature of the discovered feature: a flat grave or a feature of a settlement character. The aim of this paper is to present a comprehensive analysis (including use-wear analysis of the flame knife) and interpretation of these discovered finds.

Soil erosion dynamics on a cultivated slope in the Western Polish Carpathians based on over 30 years of plot studies

Soil erosion is one of the most important processes affecting land degradation, especially in mountainous areas. The main aim of this study was to assess the dynamics of surface runoff and soil erosion in the Carpathians (Poland), based on data from over 30 years of plot studies, determine the threshold of extreme soil erosion on agricultural slopes, and estimate the cover-management factor (C-factor) of the flysch mountains. The field research was carried out in the Bystrzanka catchment on experimental plots with potato, cereals and grassland crop. The average annual soil erosion on the potato plots was 25.67 Mg ha−1 year−1, which was 95.4 and 99.7% higher than the soil erosion on the cereal and grassland plots. Principal component analysis was used to identify the factors determining soil erosion in the Carpathians, taking into account precipitation parameters, soil conditions, plant growth phases and agricultural practices. There were positive statistically significant relationships (p < 0.05) between soil erosion and precipitation sum and surface runoff. Precipitation thresholds for soil erosion of various magnitudes were determined, and the extreme soil erosion threshold was calculated (8.79 Mg ha−1 for a single soil erosion event and 59.37 Mg ha−1 for the annual total soil erosion). In addition, the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation was used to show the role of the C-factor (calculated based on long-term plot studies, and proposed for Poland in the literature) in soil erosion studies. Different C-factors reflect changes in average soil erosion of up to 69%. Long-term plot studies are key to agricultural production and sustainable development in mountainous areas.

Is the Survivability of Silver Fir under Condition of Strong Ungulate Pressure Related to Mycobiota of Bark-Stripping Wounds?

The aim of the research was to check whether the healing of bark-stripping wounds of the silver fir tree trunks reduces the share of wood-decomposing fungi, which may be the result of inter-species interactions. The study carried out in Gorce National Park in Polish Western Carpathians analyzed drill holes of sapwood from three types of wounds (fresh, healed and old) on fir trunks with a diameter at breast height (DBH) of 4.0–16.9 cm as a result of bark-stripping by red deer (Cervus elaphus). In the wood of fresh wounds Alternaria alternata (Fr.) Keissl. and Arthrinium arundinis (Corda) Dyko &amp; B. Sutton had the largest share in mycobiota. Phompsis spp. and the species Sydowia polyspora (Bref. &amp; Tavel) E. Müll. and Epicoccum nigrum Link were also isolated. The dominants in old wounds were Eutypa spp., Phomopsis spp. and Cylindrobasidium evolvens (Fr.) Jülich. Healed wounds were dominated by Trichoderma atroviride P. Karst, a fungus antagonistic to many fungal pathogens. Such properties are shared by A. arundinis, especially common in fresh wound wood. It seems that these fungi support the process of wounded tree regeneration (healing of wounds) and limit the activity of wood-decaying fungi in old age, which makes fir survival very high. Thus, even a strong red deer pressure cannot be considered the basic factor determining the dynamics of fir in this part of the Carpathians.

Development and degradation of a submontane forest in the Beskid Wyspowy Mountains (Polish Western Carpathians) during the Holocene

Mountain regions harbour high biodiversity; however, in numerous areas, they are strongly degraded by human activity. Our study reconstructs the development of the submontane forest belt (400 and 650 m a.s.l.) in the Beskid Wyspowy Mountains (Western Carpathians, Central Europe) affected by climate, humans, fire, and parasitic fungi during the Holocene. This forest belt is considered the most transformed by the human in the Carpathian region. Our multi-proxy study included analyses of pollen, non-pollen palynomorphs (NPPs), plant macrofossils, micro- and macrocharcoal (size fraction &gt;100 µm, analysed in contiguous sampling), geochemical, and sedimentological markers. The results revealed that Picea abies dominated on the fen subjected to study at ca. 8510–5010 cal. BP. Tilia cordata was a substantial component of the submontane forest between ca. 8510 and 2970 cal. BP and it survived a probable Kretzschmaria deusta outbreak, as well as a period of increased fire activity (ca. 6000 cal. BP). The final retreat of forests with a substantial contribution of Tilia was induced by the expansion of Abies alba, Fagus sylvatica, and partly Carpinus betulus and was preceded by the period of increased fire activity and erosion. From ca. 900 cal. BP human-induced deforestations and agricultural and pastoral activity increased. The modern presence of woodlands with Pinus sylvestris and Larix decidua, in the submontane zone in the Beskid Wyspowy Mountains, is a result of sub-recent anthropogenic afforestation on overgrazed areas. The example of the Zbludza site reveals that changes related to fire and pathogen infections, if they have low magnitudes and new competitive taxa are absent, may be reversible in a forest composed of fire-intolerant tree taxa as Tilia. Nonetheless, the widespread submontane ecosystem degradation and the introduction of alien species hamper the regeneration of forest vegetation typical of the submontane zone.

New Records of Rare Hypogeous Fungi from Poland (Central Europe)

Investigations carried out in recent years have provided new data on the localities of some rare hypogeous fungi in Central Europe. In this study, we present new localities of &lt;em&gt;Leucangium carthusianum&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;Melanogaster luteus&lt;/em&gt;, and &lt;em&gt;Rhizopogon &lt;/em&gt;&lt;em&gt;melanogastroides&lt;/em&gt;, two of which are new for Poland. Sporocarps of &lt;em&gt;L. carthusianum &lt;/em&gt;were found in seven new localities in mixed and coniferous forests in the Western Carpathians as well as in Sudetes. In Poland, the species was also recorded in a mixed forest in the Kraków-Częstochowa Upland. Fir, &lt;em&gt;Abies alba&lt;/em&gt;, accompanied the fungus in almost all known localities. Three localities of &lt;em&gt;M. luteus &lt;/em&gt;were found in the Polish Western and Eastern Carpathians in &lt;em&gt;Alnus incana &lt;/em&gt;communities mostly associated with streams. Knowledge of the distribution of this species in Europe is incomplete due to the complicated taxonomic history; nevertheless, it is regarded as rare, despite its wide distribution. One new locality of &lt;em&gt;R. melanogastroides &lt;/em&gt;recorded in the Tatra Mts, Western Carpathians, is the fourth known to date. This species is mostly associated with &lt;em&gt;Pinus mugo &lt;/em&gt;in high mountain localities (the Alps, the Tatra Mts). In this study, detailed descriptions and illustrations of the macro- and micromorphological features of the species are provided.

Ecophysiological Variability of Alnus viridis (Chaix) DC. Green Alder Leaves in the Bieszczady Mountains (Poland).

Alnus viridis (Chaix) DC., green alder, is a fast-growing shrub that grows expansively in the European mountainside. In Poland, A. viridis naturally occurs only in the Bieszczady Mountains (south-eastern part of the country), above the upper forest border. In this study, we assessed the potential of green alder to expand in post-farming areas in the Bieszczady Mountains. We investigated the effects of topographical, climatic, and edaphic characteristics of four various study sites on the physiological and morphological properties of A. viridis leaves in order to answer the question whether the growth of plants in lower positions improves their physiological condition to such an extent that it increases the species invasiveness. This is the first comprehensive ecophysiological study of this species to be carried out in this part of Europe. The photochemical efficiency of PSII, the chlorophyll content, and leaf 13C and 15N discrimination were analyzed. On the basis of leaf radiation reflection, coefficients such as reflectance indices of anthocyanins, carotenoids, flavonoids (ARI2, CRI1, FRI), photochemical index of reflection (PRI), and the water band index (WBI) were calculated. We observed favorable physiological effects in A. viridis plants growing in locations below the upper forest border compared to plants growing in higher locations. As a result, A. viridis may become an invasive species and disturb the phytocoenotic balance of plant communities of the altitudinal zones in the Polish Western Carpathians.

Uzupełnienia do flory mchów Pasma Policy w polskich Karpatach Zachodnich

An annotated list of 31 moss species from the Polica Range in the Beskidy Zachodnie Mountains, Polish Western Carpathians, is provided. Of these, 15 species represent new records for this mountain range, while 16 species have so far been considered to be very rare or rare in this area. Tortula mucronifolia Schwägr. is excluded from the moss flora of the Polica Range and the Beskidy Zachodnie. Bucklandiella affinis is recorded for the second time in the Polish Western Carpathians. This species along with Schistidium trichodon var. trichodon is a new addition to the moss flora of the Beskidy Zachodnie, whilst Ditrichum pusillum, Meesia uliginosa and Schistidium elegantulum represent second records of the species concerned in these mountains. Four species of moss, Schistidium elegantulum, S. trichodon var. trichodon, Bucklandiella affinis, Syntrichia latifolia and Meesia uliginosa are known to occur exclusively in the Polica Range within the Beskid Wysoki. Distribution of all species in the study area is mapped and for some species distribution maps in the Polish Carpathians are provided. The moss flora of the Polica Range consists currently of 278 species and 5 varieties. The diversity of the moss flora in the Beskidy Zachodnie is discussed. The richest muscoflora has the Beskid Wysoki (355 species, 1 subspecies and 11 varieties) which is followed by the Beskid Śląski (304 species and 3 varieties), the Gorce (286 species and 9 varieties) and the Beskid Mały (260 species and 8 varieties). Within the Beskid Wysoki Range the richest moss flora has the Babia Góra massif (280 species, 1 subspecies and 11 varieties) and Polica Range (278 species and 5 varieties).

Index of Atmospheric Purity reflects the ecological conditions better than the environmental pollution in the Carpathian forests

The Index of Atmospheric Purity (IAP) is a popular tool used for the assessment of air quality in polluted urban areas, on the basis of phytosociological data of epiphytic lichen communities. We hypothesized that this indicator could also be used in less polluted forest areas to determine the quality of ecological conditions for lichens. The aim of the present study was to verify the use of IAP method in the assessment of environmental pollution, and alternatively for the assessment of general ecological conditions in protected mountain forests of Gorce National Park (Polish Western Carpathians) based on the epiphytic lichen biota associated with Picea abies. The spatial distribution of IAP values on monitored sites in GNP was compared with: 1) spatial distribution of accumulated sulfur, nitrogen, selected heavy metals, and total heavy metals in Hypogymnia physodes thalli in 1993 and 2018 (30 sites), 2) mean ecological indicator values characterizing species requirements for light (L), substrate reaction (R) and nutrients (N), in 1993, 2013 and 2018 (33 sites). Generalized linear model and redundancy analysis were performed for disclosing most influencing factors affecting lichen communities. The study revealed a few negligible relationships between IAP values and accumulation of such elements as Ni, Mn, Cd, and Cr in both monitoring periods. Simultaneously, IAP can be useful for the identification of forest areas with a high degree of naturalness.

Bryoerythrophyllum alpigenum (Bryophyta, Pottiaceae) confirmed in the moss flora of Poland, with a review of the nomenclatural issues associated with this species name

&#x0D; &#x0D; &#x0D; Occurrence of Bryoerythrophyllum alpigenum (Jur.) P.C.Chen in Poland is confirmed. The species is known from a single record from the Western Tatra Mountains in the Polish Western Carpathians. A description and illustrations of the Polish material of this species is provided and its distribution mapped. Taxonomic and nomenclatural comments on B. alpigenum are presented and its global geographical distribution is reviewed. This species was first recognised as a variety, Didymodon rubellus var. dentatus Schimp., in 1860 by W. P. Schimper. It was subsequently described in 1882 by J. Juratzka as Didymodon alpigenus Jur., and its name should be ascribed to Juratzka alone, not to Venturi as suggested in Index muscorum and D. alpigenus Jur. is the basionym of Bryoerythrophyllum alpigenum. The epithet alpigenus appeared in the literature for the first time as Trichostomum alpigenum Venturi in Pfeffer’s work of 1869 dealing with the mosses of the Rhaetian Alps, but the name was not validly published under Art. 36.1, because Pfeffer did not accept it. Likewise, the name Didymodon alpigenus was not validly published by Venturi ten years later under Art. 38.1, because no description or diagnosis or a reference to a previously and effectively published description or diagnosis were provided. The current statistics of the moss flora of Poland is given. Since the publication of the catalogue of Polish mosses in 2003, some 17 species, one subspecies and three varieties of moss have been added to and two species were excluded from the moss flora of Poland, so currently some 715 species, nine subspecies and 90 varieties are known to occur in the country.&#x0D; &#x0D; &#x0D;

An integrated approach for investigating geomorphic changes due to flash flooding in two small stream channels (Western Polish Carpathians)

Study regionPoland, Carpathians, Gorce Mountains, Jamne and Jaszcze catchments. Study focusThe hydrological response to, and geomorphic impacts of, a 18 July 2018 flood involving two small catchments (each covering less than 12 km2) that were not hydrologically controlled were examined. A peak flood discharge was simulated with two hydrological models: SCS-CN and SCS-UH. Hydrological modelling was performed in order to complement the post-flooding investigations and to verify the hydrological data via cross-check comparison. Geodetic measurements of the channels and ALS and TLS data were used to analyse the geomorphological changes. In addition, the flood magnitude recorded for the studied streams was compared with the other local flash floods in the Carpathians using the unit K flood index (a non-dimensional measure). New hydrological insights for the regionThe maximum unit flow (4.1–4.8 m3 s−1 km-2) placed this flood event among the 10 largest flash floods in the Polish Carpathians (based on the K index). The peak discharge simulated with the SCS-CN and SCS-UH hydrological models was similar to the data obtained during the post-flooding investigation, indicating that this method can be used for catchments in the Polish Carpathians that are not managed hydrologically. The high unit stream powers estimated for the analysed channel cross sections (>750 W m-2) were associated with narrow channels and steep slopes. The most significant geomorphological changes were observed in unmanaged channel reaches. Moreover, the channel transformations in the Jamne catchment were greater than those in the Jaszcze catchment (in a more forested area). This analysis can be useful in the evaluation of flood risk management processes associated with flash floods in small, unmanaged catchments.

New Record of Macrofungi for the Mycobiota of the Cieszyn Municipality (Polish Western Carpathians) Including New Species to Poland

In this paper, we present the results of mycological research carried out between 2015 and 2018 in the Cieszyn township, in the Silesian Foothills (Outer Western Carpathians). The list of 417 species of macrofungi from the Cieszyn area reported in our previous study, has been expanded further by the addition of 37 taxa found in the current study. Among these, the following deserve special attention: fungi that are new to Poland’s mycobiota (six species: &lt;em&gt;Bryoscyphus dicrani&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;Discina martinii&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;Elaphomyces aculeatus&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;Tuber brumale&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;T. foetidum&lt;/em&gt;, and &lt;em&gt;Russula cerea&lt;/em&gt;), taxa subject to legal protection (four species: &lt;em&gt;Disciotis venosa&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;Grifola frondosa&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;Mitrophora semilibera&lt;/em&gt;, and &lt;em&gt;Sparassis brevipes&lt;/em&gt;), as well as fungi that are rare in Poland, included in national or regional red lists, and in the registers of rare and endangered species (24 species including &lt;em&gt;Amanita echinocephala&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;Arrhenia retiruga&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;A. spathulata&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;Catinella olivacea&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;Elaphomyces maculatus&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;Hygrophorus discoxanthus&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;Ophiocordyceps entomorrhiza&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;Pluteus diettrichii&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;Tuber aestivum&lt;/em&gt;, and &lt;em&gt;T. fulgens&lt;/em&gt;). This paper presents the distribution and location of 32 species of fungi along with a short description and illustration of the macro- and micromorphological features of select species and their habitats.

Heavy Minerals as Indicators of the Source and Stratigraphic Position of the Loess-Like Deposits in the Orava Basin (Polish Western Carpathians)

This study is focused on the loess-like deposits accumulated on glaciofluvial fans of the Czarny Dunajec River in the Orava Basin (Southern Poland). The deposition of these sediments took place during three cold intervals of the Pleistocene: Würm, Riss, and Günz/Mindel. So far, the provenance and age of the deposits has not been precisely defined, even though the development of each fan is believed to be related to the successive glacial periods in the Tatra Mountains. Heavy minerals were studied to determine the source of the deposits. Heavy mineral analyses revealed that zircon, tourmaline, rutile, garnet, amphibole, epidote, and apatite are the typical constituents of the heavy mineral fraction. Abundances of heavy minerals differ in each of the Pleistocene fans of the Czarny Dunajec River, especially the amphibole content. However, the chemical composition of garnet, amphibole, and tourmaline is rather uniform. This research showed that mainly medium-grade metamorphic rocks with a subordinate share of high-grade metamorphics, and granitic rocks are the dominant source rocks of the deposits studied. Such rocks are exposed in the Western Tatra Mountains, which most probably supplied the Orava Basin with clastic material. Change in abundances of heavy minerals in the succession may reflect the progressive erosion of the source area. Grain-size distribution and textural features of the sampled sediments suggest fluvial and aeolian modes of transportation. Additionally, this study indicated that heavy minerals may be used to correlate the loess covers in the Orava Basin.

Species of lichenized Ascomycota new to Polish Western Carpathians and rare in whole Carpathians

&#x0D; &#x0D; &#x0D; Five species of lichen-forming fungi not reported yet or rare in the Carpathians have been found during lichenological researches by authors in the Tatra Mts and the Gorce Mts. Of these, Tetramelas chloroleucus has not been recorded in Poland since 19th century and, similarly to Gyalecta russula, has been found for the first time in the Polish part of the Carpathians. Absconditella celata has been discovered in the Polish Western Carpathians. Fellhanera gyrophorica has never been listed before in the Western Carpathians and Epigloea bactrospora in whole Carpathians. Notes on the taxonomy, habitat and worldwide distribution of these species (including maps of their ranges in Europe) are accompanied by photo plates illustrating their morphology and anatomy.&#x0D; &#x0D; &#x0D;

Towards the understanding the impact of fire on the lower montane forest in the Polish Western Carpathians during the Holocene

In this article, we aim to decipher the effect of fire on the changes in the forest composition during the past ca. 10,700 years in the lower montane zone of the Polish Western Carpathians (Beskid Makowski Mountains, Central Europe). The results revealed that during the Early Holocene, the Ulmus population (a fire-intolerant taxon) was well-established under high fire activity, induced by the prominent presence of Pinus sylvestris. Ulmus probably was only slightly affected by fire because it occurred in wetter habitats, whereas P. sylvestris occupied drier ones. The final disruption of Pinus sylvestris–Betula woodlands were linked to a declining trend in fire activity but stable fire frequency, combined with the rapid expansion of Corylus avellana at ca. 9680 cal. BP. A low magnitude of fire disturbance with an increasing fire frequency supported the expansion of Tilia cordata (a fire-sensitive species) and C. avellana (a fire-adapted species) against Picea abies during ca. 7650–7270 cal. BP. Cooler and wetter conditions during the 4.2 and 2.8 ka. BP climatic events probably forced humans to migrate to higher altitudes, which contributed to fire-induced deforestation of a small area, which in turn, together with climatic changes, stimulated the expansion of Abies alba and Fagus sylvatica (both are fire-intolerant taxa). The discontinuities in the deposits of mire might be related to the global climatic changes of the 8.2 and 4.2 ka. BP events and extended deforestations linked to the Wallachian colonisation during the Middle Ages. Such depositional gaps, when remaining undetected during palaeoecological studies, may distort the reconstruction process of fire–vegetation relationships. In this study, we unequivocally show that small disturbances in fire may be an advantageous factor for the expansion of tree taxa devoid of morphological–physiological fire traits.

Familiarising the landscape: the development of prehistoric settlement in the middle Dunajec River valley

Despite the continuous increase of archaeological data coming from the Polish Western Carpathians, the colonisation process of the Beskidy Mountains in prehistory is still relatively poorly recognized. The subject of discussion is, in particular, the impact of environmental and cultural factors on the formation of settlement networks in individual periods. This paper considers these questions on the example of a part of the middle Dunajec River basin in the chronological framework from the Neolithic to the La Tène period. Based on the archaeological and paleoenvironmental record, an analysis of settlement dynamics in terms of preferences and economy in the subsequent periods was carried out. The observations made were then interpreted in the context of cultural phenomena. A comparison of the results with the situation observed in other Central European mountain ranges made it possible to formulate some universal tendencies in the settlement development in these zones. In particular, the impact of climate and environmental conditions on the economy was considered, as well as the role of natural resources and communication routes. It has been demonstrated that three main stages can be distinguished in the process of prehistoric mountain colonisation. This mechanism was correlated with the gradual adaptation of the economy and the “familiarising” of the mountain landscape, which offered both some limitations and strategic values determining the specific cultural function of these areas.