Polish Exiles Research Articles

‘Subalterns’ in the Russian Imperial Service

The text examines one of the most important aspects of Russian imperialism, namely its multiculturalism. The practice of exiling politically uncertain people to the east of the Empire, as well as opening the possibilities for some privileged compradors to pursue careers, were only a tiny fraction of the strategies used by the Russian authorities to involve representatives of various national minorities in (co)building the Empire. It allowed the Russian Empire to use those people’s physical and intellectual potential to expand the state’s borders, including during warfare. The encounter of the Polish exile Bronisław Zaleski and the translator of Tatar origins, Iskander Batyrshyn, during the military campaign against the Khoqand fortress Aq Masjid will serve as an example. By comparing their diaries, which both of them kept throughout the entire expedition, we can gain insights into the intricate nature of their positions within the imperial structure, their reasons for participating in the venture, the impact the hostilities had on the local population, and their perception of this conflict. These documents also reveal patterns of relationship-building between imperial subjects and authorities as well as the role of imperial power in stimulating, restricting or regulating relations between different nations.

Paweł Sobolewski i jego "Poland" – pierwsze polonijne wydawnictwo periodyczne w USA z 1842 r.

The history of the magazine Poland is outlined against the background of the conditions faced by Polish exiles deported from Austria to the USA in March 1834. After a short period of support from American society, they were left to their own entrepreneurship. Most of them came from the nobility and did not know English, which significantly hindered finding employment. This article focuses on the figures of Paweł Sobolewski and Eustachy Wyszyński – exiles who managed to adapt to the unfamiliar conditions. Their biographies and achievements are brought closer; especially Sobolewski, who gained fame as a poet and the editor and publisher of the first English-language magazine „Poland,” dealing with Polish history and culture. The article details the circumstances of the periodical’s edition and its form and content based on copies preserved in the National Library in Warsaw. The second goal of the article is an attempt to collect Sobolewski’s literary achievements, scattered in American press. As a result of a selective query, over twenty of his works published in contemporary journals were compiled, indicating the titles of publications in which they were included, with the reservation that this list is not complete. A more comprehensive query of contemporary press in the USA may uncover new, previously unknown works of the editor of „Poland” and fill gaps in his biography.

„Literatūros lankai“: dialogas su lenkų poetais

The article explores the translations of Polish literary publications in the Lithuanian Exile Literature Magazine Literaturos Lankai (Literary Folios, during the period 1952–1959). Like many of its contemporaries, Literaturos Lankai expanded the scope of foreign literature in its pages through translations. The staff of the magazine continued the Lithuanian tradition by presenting Polish poets related to Lithuania: Czesław Milosz (1911–2004) and Julian Tuwim (1894–1953). New readers were introduced to the poetry of the Polish exile Jerzy Pietrkewicz (Peterkiewicz) (1916–2007) whose writings so far have been almost not translated into Lithuanian. In exile, translator Juozas Kėkštas (1915–1981) played a pivotal role in disseminating of Milosz’s highlighting his multifaceted talents as a poet, prose writer, and literary critic. Milosz offers to break out of the feelings and impressions in Chalk Circle poetry, seeking a language that reflects epic consciousness and new forms of expression. The works of Polish authors published in Literatūros Lankai reflect the ‘pulse of the time’, revealing a disturbed lyrical subject and an ongoing quest for new artistic forms. The translations of Polish literature strengthened the literary and cultural connections between Lithuania and Poland.

Archiwum w Domu Generalnym Zgromadzenia Zmartwychwstania Pana Naszego Jezusa Chrystusa w Rzymie

The Archives at the General House of the Congregation of the Resurrection of Our Lord Jesus Christ in Rome is the central historical archives of the congregation. Bogdan Jański should be considered its founder, as he instructed to gather his entire legacy in Rome in 1840. Since 1886 the documentation has been housed in the General House of the Resurrectionists in via San Sebastanello 11. The first works organizing the archival records were undertaken by Father Paweł Smolikowski, at the turn of the 20th century. The current state of the archives has been most influenced by Father John Iwicki, who has catalogued nearly 70,000 file records, dividing the collection into 11 series. Between 2017 and 2023, Father Paweł Szymanowski, the congregation’s archivist, succeeded in signing an agreement with the Head Office of the State Archives to digitize and restore the letters of Adam Mickiewicz and Cyprian Kamil Norwid. Moreover, the Integrated Archival Information System (Zintegrowany System Informacji Archiwalnej – ZoSIA) has been implemented in the archives, thanks to which the inventory descriptions of archival items and their scans are successively uploaded. While the Roman Resurrectionist Archives does not have a statute, since October 30th, 1996, it has been operating on the basis of regulations approved by Father Sutherland MacDonald CR, the General of the Congregation. The archives have an inventory of more than 80,000 records. It collects the documentation heritage generated by the congregation’s central institutions, Resurrectionist houses and the legacy of the clergy. The Resurrectionist Archives includes very precious documentary resources, which, by their sheer size and informational value, make this institution one of the most important outside Poland. Its significance is not limited only to the knowledge of the history of the Polish Church in exile in the 19th and 20th centuries, but also the life of Polish exiles. Particularly valuable are the materials concerning the activity of the Great Emigration, cultural and political life of Poles in exile in the era of national captivity.

"Kultura" and Its Forgotten University in Exile

Instytut Literacki Kultura (ILK) was the core of anti-communist resistance during the Cold War: it promoted independent political thought and understanding among central and eastern European countries while showing resilience against Communist regimes. Although ILK is mostly known for its monthly exile magazine Kultura, edited in Polish, its founder-editor Jerzy Giedroyc had anticipated another project in addition to a Literary Institute after the war. Foreseeing a long period of exile because of the Soviet occupation of Poland, he envisioned setting up a university for young Poles. His idea, which was delayed a few years because of the beginning of the Cold War, developed into a project with Józef Czapski to create a university for young refugees fleeing their communist countries from behind the Iron Curtain. After three years of preparation within ILK, the Free Europe University in Exile and its study center, Collège de l’Europe libre, were established in 1951 under the auspices of the American anti-communist organization National Committee for a Free Europe, yet Giedroyc and Czapski were excluded from its activities. The aim of this article is to trace the history of this essentially unknown initiative of the Polish exile group using archival holdings in Europe and the United States, and to highlight its importance within ILK.

“An internal matter for the Soviet Union”. The attitude of the Polish Embassy in Moscow towards problems with changing the citizenship of Polish repatriates from the depths of the Soviet Union in 1945

After concluding the Polish-Soviet repatriation agreement (6 July 1945), the Soviet Union (the USSR) started preparing for the evacuation of Polish exiles: victims of the Soviet deportation from the years 1940–1941. It soon became apparent that those who wanted to return to Poland were required to undergo the procedure of changing citizenship. The exiles had to prove they had been Polish citizens prior to 17 September 1939. The majority of them did not have the documents that could confirm this, thus, the planned repatriation was under threat. In the autumn of 1945, the Polish Embassy in Moscow took action to make the procedure of changing citizenship easier, and finally mass repatriation began.

Pamiętniki i listy polskich autorów z Ziem Zabranych (Litwa, Białoruś, Ukraina) w XIX stuleciu. Uwagi na marginesie zakończonych dwu projektów Narodowego Programu Rozwoju Humanistyki – perspektywy badań źródłowych

The article presents the characteristics and summary of the results of research conducted in the years 2013–2019 by an international team of historians at Jan Kochanowski University of Kielce, as part of two scientific projects under the program of the National Program for the Development of Humanities. Their goal was to catalog and compile the handwritten diaries and letters of Polish authors from the Western Krai in the 19th century, and to conduct research on the image of Polish exiles in Western Siberia in the second half of the 18th and in the 19th century in the eyes of Russians and the Siberian population. Source queries conducted in numerous domestic and foreign archival and library collections (Russia, Belarus, Ukraine, Lithuania, France, England) allowed to catalog over 5,000 handwritten and printed diaries and letters of Polish authors from the Western Krai and connected to this area. These studies drew attention to the scale of the problem in terms of the availability of source documentation on the above topics and the possibility of obtaining it, and indicated the need to continue this research, paying particular attention to the source and editorial aspects.

Ziemie Zabrane w angielskojęzycznej prasie związanej ze stronnictwem księcia Adama Jerzego Czartoryskiego w początkach emigracji

“The Taken Lands” in English-language press related to the political camp of prince Adam Jerzy Czartoryski at the begining of exile The article is based on three English-language press titles published in the early 1830s in Great Britain by Polish emigrants and British supporters of the Polish case related to the political camp of Prince Adam Jerzy Czartoryski. These are: “The Hull Polish Record,” “The Polish Exile,” and “Polonia or Monthly Reports of Polish Affairs”. The main aim of the article is to recreate the image of the so-called “Ziemie Zabrane” (The Taken Lands) – i.e. the former Polish provinces incorporated directly into the Russian Empire after 1795. These were the lands of today’s Lithuania, part of Latvia, all of Belarus and the right-bank of Ukraine. The authors of the several articles devoted to this issue presented – in their writings – the history of these lands from the Middle Ages, their fate during the partitions until the November Uprising, the course of which in Lithuania and Ukraine was described in more detail. There were also reports of repressions that fell upon the inhabitants of these lands after the defeat of the uprising. On the pages of the surveyed press one can also find reports on the state of the economy of these lands, trade and water routes; biographies of famous people born in these areas and many descriptions of their tourist and sightseeing values. In each of these cases, the authors of the texts tried to emphasize the ties between these lands and their inhabitants with the rest of the Polish territory and convince the potential readers that they constitute its integral part, which should be included in it in the event of the reconstruction of the independent Polish state.

Czechoslovakia in the Context of Nestor Makhno’s Exile (1922-1924)

The article introduces two handwritten letters of Nestor Makhno to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Czechoslovakia and to President Tomáš G. Masaryk. It also publishes hitherto unknown documents from the Archive of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Czech Republic that partly charted Makhno’s fate in the years 1922-1924. The article expands and completes the source base of research on Makhno’s exile. For the first time, it puts these sources in the context of the Russian Aid Operation and activities of Makhno in Poland. An analysis of the two letters reveals how Makhno perceived Czechoslovakia; what he expected from it and how he presented himself to T.G. Masaryk. On the basis of archival documents, the attitude of the Czechoslovak authorities towards Makhno can be partially explained.
 Based on his historical experience, Makhno compared the Czech nation to that of the Ukrainians, and he also believed that «Czechoslovak Slavonicity» could indicate potential solidarity with the Ukrainian nation. Initially, in Czechoslovakia, Makhno intended to launch his resistance against Bolshevism. Nevertheless, although the sources are ambiguous, owing to the miserable living conditions experienced in Polish exile, it is likely that he also dreamed of repatriation from Czechoslovakia. Moreover, Makhno was purposely vague in describing his role and the situation in Poland to Masaryk to curry favour. Due to Czechoslovakia’s geopolitical goals, any tendencies towards an uprising against Bolshevism with the goal of Ukrainian independence were perceived rather negatively. The Czechoslovak authorities viewed Makhno unfavourably because of the Polish press. He was described as a «bogeyman» of the landowners, and was seen as a distrustful bandit rather than a principled anarchist.

A Shadow Party System: The Political Activities of Cold War Polish Exiles

Abstract Polish émigrés were an important feature of the Cold War landscape in Europe, as were exiles from other Central European countries. In addition to opposing the Communist systems in their countries of origin, they tried to pursue independent policies in the West. Émigrés were active in political parties—including Christian Democratic, Socialist, and agrarian parties—but at the same time they attempted to create new forms, such as new political and social movements and transnational organizations. With active international agendas, they also worked to influence their own societies, both in the countries in which they had settled and in their countries of origin. This mixture of social and political dimensions was a specific phenomenon of Cold War intellectual history in Europe. The article draws on archival materials from Poland, Great Britain, France, Italy, and the United States and builds on concepts developed by scholars such as Maurice Duverger, Giovanni Sartori, V. O. Key, Jr., Yossi Shain, and Idesbald Goddeeris.

Rebels into Loyalists, or Loyalists into Rebels? Habsburg Officials and Their International Contacts during the Age of Revolutions

ABSTRACT During the Age of Revolutions, the Habsburg monarchy initially opposed nationalist movements as revolutionary. While the monarchy later sought to co-opt loyal patriots, historical memory often imagines the Habsburg state as implacably opposed to both nationalism and nationalist movements. In practice, however, Habsburg officials and central European nationalisms overlapped and engaged with each other in surprising ways. Their interaction problematizes a sharp line between monarchism and nationalism. This essay speficially introduces a special issue of Central Europe, consisting of two papers presented at a 2022 conference on the Habsburg state apparatus. The two papers explored the tensions and interactions between Habsburg officials and patriot circles as they played out in international relations. Polish exiles sought to recruit Habsburg officials to the national cause, while Habsburg agents sought to recruit patriots to the spy network of the Habsburg political police.

Tadeusz Siuta – historyk starożytności ze Lwowa

This text is dedicated to Tadeusz Siuta (1913–1978), a Polish historian of antiquity from Lwów (Lviv). Tadeusz Siuta studied history and classical philology at John Casimir University in Lwów. After completing his studies, he became an assistant at the department of ancient history. His academic career was interrupted by the outbreak of World War II and the Soviet occupation of Lwów. Arrested in December 1939, he was sent to the labor camps. After his release in 1941, he became a soldier in the Second Polish Corps. Due to the incorporation of his native city of Lwów into the Soviet Union, he remained in exile, first in Italy, then in Argentina, and finally in the United States, where he became actively involved in the life of the Polish exile.

Законодательные акты и делопроизводственные материалы как источники изучения истории польской ссылки

The article characterizes legislative acts and documents as the main types of historical sources that allow recreating the features and specifics of penal servitude and settlements of Polish exiles – participants of the uprising of 1863. The authors assess the information potential of materials stored in regional archives (State Archives of the Irkutsk Region, State Archives of the Trans-Baikal Territory, and State Archives of the Republic of Buryatia).

An American Reads Andrzej Bobkowski's Wartime Notebooks

Abstract The article points out several of Andrzej Bobkowski's main concerns in his youthful Wartime Notebooks that may be of particular importance to contemporary American, although not only American, readers. They are the desire for individual freedom unrestrained by ideology, freedom from national or class allegiance, and disengagement from the past, be it familial or historical. Accordingly, the journal Bobkowski—a Polish exile in the German occupied France—kept throughout the war years became a project of gradual self-discovery and self-liberation.

Polish Exiled Artist Jozef Berkman in Baikal Region in 60—70s of XIX Century

The issue of the life and creative activity of the Polish exiled artist — a participant in the Polish uprising of 1863—1864 Jozef Berkman is considered. The relevance of the study is due to the fact that, despite the significant number of drawings and paintings by Y. Berkman, today the facts of his life are practically unknown both in hard labor in the Nerchinsk mining district and in a settlement in the Irkutsk province. It is noted that the information found in a number of sources regarding the life of the artist in hard labor and settlement is often unreliable. The novelty of the study is seen in the fact that a reconstruction of the period of the artist’s life in 1864—1877 in the Baikal region is presented in the article. The authors have identified and introduced into scientific circulation materials from domestic and foreign archives, portraits of Polish exiles, painted by the artist in Transbaikalia and currently stored in museums in Poland. The authors reviewed the scientific literature on the topic of the study, analyzed the memoirs of Polish political exiles who served hard labor together with Y. Berkman and described his artistic activities.

The Mass Deportation of Poles to Siberia, 1863–1880

The Mass Deportation of Poles to Siberia, 1863–1880

Authorities and Polish Exiles in the Siberia of the 19th century (Based on Epistolary Sources)

The Polish movement of national liberation is one of the characteristic features of the history of the Russian Empire in the nineteenth century. Tsarism reacted harshly to the uprising in Poland in 1830–1831 and the January Uprising of 1863–64. Plenty of participants were exiled under police supervision to the inner provinces of European Russia and Siberia. Correspondence became the main channel of communication for the exiles and their loved ones. Additional rules were developed at the end of 1863 in order to strengthen control over the exiled Poles, which included perlustration of postal and telegraphic correspondence by the provincial and county authorities. The purpose of the study is to analyze the extracts and copies of the letters of Polish exiles which are preserved in the State Archive of the Novgorod region and deal with the Siberian theme. The detected documents contain information that makes it possible to reconstruct certain aspects of the daily life of Poles on the way to the exile location and in the new place of their residence, to describe the moods of the exiles and their attitudes towards the events of national and local significance as well as to present individual plots of family history. The article is intended for those interested in genealogy, the history of Polonia in Russia, perlustration in the Russian Empire and the daily life of exiles.

Against Great Russian Imperialism

Russia is waging war against Ukraine with the aim of destroying it as an independent state and Russifying Ukrainians. The Putin regime is thus following in the tradition of Russian and Soviet imperialism. In 1977, the Polish exile magazine Kultura published a “Declaration on the Ukrainian Cause”. It was an appeal to international public opinion to support Ukrainians and other nations in Eastern Europe in their efforts to gain independence and to work together to create a free, federal Europe. The warnings, positions, and visions contained within this declaration are of unexpected topicality. They form the intellectual basis of the broad support found in Poland for the Ukrainians’ struggle to defend their right to self-determination and freedom.

The New Closeness and Its Roots

Poland’s solidarity with Ukraine in its defensive war against Russia is by no means a given. Just a few decades ago, the two nations were enemies. The impetus for reconciliation came from the Polish exile magazine Kultura with its far-sighted thinking. Since the 1990s, the number of Polish-Ukrainian contacts has grown exponentially. Today, almost every Polish family has acquaintances in and from Ukraine. This is the result of Ukrainian labour migration and cultural cooperation. Authors and the literary scene played a central role: with their books, writers such as Yurii Andrukhovych and Serhii Zhadan stirred an enormous interest in Ukraine. Poland became the hub of Europe for Ukrainian literature and culture. At the same time, Andrukhovych & Co. acted as ambassadors of Polish culture in Ukraine.

Сибирско-польская история на страницах журналов «Sybirak» и «Каторга и ссылка»

The article focuses on what the Moscow journal Katorga issylka and Warsaw journal Sibiryak published about the Polish exile to Siberia in the interwar period. The issues of hard labour and exile to Siberia have been central in both periodicals. Sibiryak was published in 1934-1939 by the Union of Siberians, founded in 1926-1927 by the Poles who returned from Russia. They were former exiles and prisoners of war. These materials contributed to the identification and collection of the information about the Siberian Polish history and to the consolidation the “Black Legend” about the Polish exile to Siberia, formed by the memoir tradition of the 19th century. The journal published articles, memories and other materials related to the participants in the Polish uprising in 1863-1864, subsequently exiled to Siberia. Katorga issyikawas published in 1921-1935 by All-Union Society of Former Political Prisoners and Exiled Settlers. The main sections of the journal published on the revolutionary movement history in the Russian Empire, together with obituaries, bibliography, and chronicles. The questions of Polish exile to Siberia and participation of the exiled in the revolutionary movement were among the topics discussed by this journal, too. However, it published much less on the discussed problem if compared to what was published in Sibiryak. The publication started the historiographical tradition of considering the issue of Polish political exile to Siberia in the broad context of the revolutionary movement history in Russia and the formation of Russian Polish revolutionary ties.