Polish Energy Sector Research Articles

Hydrogen Materials and Technologies in the Aspect of Utilization in the Polish Energy Sector

Currently, modern hydrogen technologies, due to their low or zero emissions, constitute one of the key elements of energy transformation and sustainable development. The growing interest in hydrogen is driven by the European climate policy aimed at limiting the use of fossil fuels for energy purposes. Although not all opinions regarding the technical and economic potential of hydrogen energy are positive, many prepared forecasts and analyses show its prospective importance in several areas of the economy. The aim of this article is to provide a comprehensive review of modern materials, current hydrogen technologies and strategies, and show the opportunities, problems, and challenges Poland faces in the context of necessary energy transformation. The work describes the latest trends in the production, transportation, storage, and use of hydrogen. The environmental, social, and economic aspects of the use of green hydrogen were discussed in addition to the challenges and expectations for the future in the field of hydrogen technologies. The main goals of the development of the hydrogen economy in Poland and the directions of actions necessary to achieve them were also presented. It was found that the existence of the EU CO2 emissions allowance trading system has a significant impact on the costs of hydrogen production. Furthermore, the production of green hydrogen will become economically justified as the costs of energy obtained from renewable sources decrease and the costs of electrolysers decline. However, the realisation of this vision depends on the progress of scientific research and technical innovations that will reduce the costs of hydrogen production. Government support mechanisms for the development of hydrogen infrastructure and technologies will also be of key importance.

Polish energy sector’s dependence on lignite mining: The process of transition

Polish energy sector’s dependence on lignite mining: The process of transition

Labor intensity as a strategic KPI for evaluating the efficiency of coal mines

In the face of the growing demands of the modern economy, 21st-century technology, and the challenges of Industry 4.0, the classical management of mining enterprises is not sufficient, and it is transforming into a process approach to the organization. The usage of the process management concept creates a situation for improving the organization at many levels, both at the strategy and operational levels. This provides an opportunity for a comprehensive view of the organization, but it is necessary to define indicators that determine the flexibility of operations, the achievement of profitability, and effective operational management. These indicators, called key performance indicators, focus on crucial aspects of the organization's activity that are fundamental to its current and future success. The contribution goal of the presented paper is to propose a new index for assessing the efficiency of coal mines, called the labor intensity index. The proposal is based on a previous three-area strategic analysis, including production indicators of coal mining companies, the state of coal mining in Poland, and economic factors affecting the current situation of the Polish coal mining industry. The analysis covered the period from 1988 to 2020. The use of new KPIs to assess performance in process terms is necessary to develop better new strategies for mining companies. It is particularly important in light of the industry's restructuring plans to restructure the mining industry and the far-reaching vision of decarbonizing the Polish energy sector.

Challenges Facing the Polish Energy Sector in 2024 and Upcoming Years

The paper discusses a variety of serious challenges facing the Polish energy sector until 2040. These challenging tasks largely result from intensive works in the European Union on the finalisation of measures implementing a zero-carbon economy, as well as social (Covid-19), political and military events, both global and regional (war in Ukraine). After analysing the present condition of the energy sector, the authors proposed a modification of Poland’s energy policy, pointing out that the transformation of the national electricity system towards zero-carbon energy requires, on the one hand, speeding up investments in renewable sources, but on the other hand, insuring this process by own controllable generation sources. The paper also defines the conditions that should be met to achieve the highest possible share of non-carbon energy in the national energy mix by 2040.

An Analysis of Risks and Challenges to the Polish Power Industry in the Year 2024

The green transition is a challenge for the Polish economy and energy sector. In this paper, the expert method of analysis was applied and findings revealed that the challenges and prerequisites for an effective transformation of the power sector mainly include technical, technological and organizational issues of energy production and use. The provision of electricity at competitive prices and with a low carbon footprint, for individual consumers and industry, is a prerequisite for maintaining the well-being of the population and ensuring the competitiveness of domestically produced goods. The ambitious climate policy goals of the European Union require immediate action and call for radical changes in the Polish energy sector; in the coming years, it must drastically reduce the amount of energy produced from fossil fuels and replace it with so-called green energy from renewable sources. The main purpose of this article was to highlight the need to modify Poland’s energy policy until 2040 in order to make it more consistent with the ambitious climate goals of the European Union. This article also shows that Poland’s energy transition must include a shift from fossil fuels to renewables, while ensuring that energy security is stabilized by the current energy and generation resources. To this end, we discuss the issues of creating reserves in the national energy system for the entire period of Poland’s energy transition.

Development of the Polish energy sector through transformation and harmonization with the European energy and climate policy

Development of the Polish energy sector through transformation and harmonization with the European energy and climate policy

Reliability of Renewable Power Generation using the Example of Offshore Wind Farms

Abstract Research background The issue of reliability and the cost of failure or maintenance costs of renewable energy sources, including wind farms, is becoming increasingly important, especially as the volume of electricity supply from such installations increases. Purpose The purpose of the paper is to evaluate the development of wind energy in European countries between 2010 and 2020. Evaluating the reliability of wind farm components and ensuring that wind farm infrastructure is available at a high level is crucial to the stability of the electricity supply system. Therefore, the paper presents, as a case study, a reliability estimation of one of the wind farms operating in the North Sea. The analysis is carried out on the basis of empirical data obtained from experts involved in the maintenance of this wind farm. The estimated reliability function is an important reliability indicator for users of this system. On the basis of the evaluated reliability function, for example, the system availability can be improved, and the maintenance costs of the system can be optimised. Research methodology Mathematical modelling was used to analyse system reliability. Further, in the developed reliability models, it was assumed that the system components have the multistate Weibull reliability functions with various parameters in their different reliability state subsets. Novelty Original study with literature review. In the context of the requirements for the transformation of the Polish energy sector, the presented approach can be used in the practical implementation of RES projects, taking into account the reliability of offshore wind farm installations.

Sustainability Reporting in Energy Companies—Is There a Link between Social Disclosures, the Experience and Market Value?

As a result of the dissemination of the sustainability concept, social disclosures have become an important area of non-financial reporting, and the energy sector is no exception. The purpose of our article is a multi-faceted evaluation of sustainability reports published by companies operating in the Polish energy sector, from the perspective of social disclosures. The study involved the Polish listed companies that made up the WIG-Energia index. The time scope of the study covers the 2017–2021 period. In total, 54 non-financial reports were analyzed. In the first place, a comparative analysis was carried out to assess the social disclosures made by the WIG-Energia companies against the background of the biggest and the most liquid (blue chip) WIG20 companies. All the applied tools: ESG rating, NFR_S index, and multidimensional data visualization, have confirmed that the energy companies year by year have been presenting larger and larger extents of social disclosures. At the same time, it was observed that the companies appearing for the first time in the WIG-Energia index showed a very small extent of disclosures, whereas the companies which figured in the index throughout the studied period presented a relatively large extent of disclosures, due to their experience in preparing sustainability reports. Next, using the Pearson correlation coefficient (r), we examined the relationship between the energy companies’ market values and the extent of their social disclosures. The results of the statistical analyses have validated the strong and very strong correlation between capitalization and extent of disclosures. It is therefore possible to state that companies with higher market values are characterized by larger extents of social disclosures.

Information Value of Individual and Consolidated Financial Statements for Indicative Liquidity Assessment of Polish Energy Groups in 2018–2021

Electricity is currently one of the most popular sources of energy. Considering such widespread use of electric energy, we may ask, what is the economic cost of producing and supplying it? The climate crisis and the social pressure associated with it have triggered the necessity to make further investments in renewable and low-emission energy sources, while the COVID-19 pandemic has abruptly limited electricity consumption in industry. All these factors can have an impact on disruptions or loss in the liquidity of companies responsible for supplying electricity to end users. Guaranteeing cash flow for energy sector entities is a prerequisite for energy supply continuity. In this context, the selection and application of reliable sources of information are vital for the management of the financial liquidity of energy sector entities. The aim of this article is to prove the value of the financial information of individual (IFR) and consolidated financial statements (CFR) essential for the indicative liquidity assessment of Polish energy groups in 2018–2021. The hypothesis of this study is that individual and consolidated statements do not offer coincident analytical data due to the diversified role of their parent undertakings. We have applied indicative liquidity assessment analysis from a static and dynamic perspective to 2018–2021, on the basis of individual and consolidated financial statements. The results clearly show high dysfunction in the application of indicative liquidity assessment in the case of the individual financial statement of the parent company. This is mainly due to the role parent companies play in Polish energy sector groups, as they are mainly responsible for support processes.

Innovativeness in energy companies in developing economies: Determinants, evaluation and comparative analysis using the example of Poland

Energy and the energy transition associated with its operation requires the creation and implementation of innovations, without which effective changes in the energy balance and greenhouse gas emissions will not be possible. This is particularly important in emerging and developing economies, which are often unable to meet modern environmental requirements. Various approaches to assessing innovation are proposed in research and literature. Nevertheless, there is a lack of holistic methods (assessing both the potential and the results of innovation), based on publicly available data and taking into account the specificity of the sector. Therefore, the objective of this article is to develop a model for evaluating innovativeness (potential and resultant) of companies in the energy sector. Additional sub-goals are: (a) using the developed model to evaluate innovativeness of seven Polish energy companies; (b) conducting a comparative analysis in terms of resultant and potential innovation for seven Polish energy companies and (c) specifying recommendations for improving the innovativeness of the examined companies and the Polish energy sector operating in a developing economy. The proposed model is based on publicly available financial data and takes into account two areas: 1. Potential innovativeness, allowing to determine the scale and type of resources supporting the creation of innovation; and 2. Resultant innovativeness, including the actual effects of pro-innovation activities. The evaluation of innovativeness in the above dimensions was carried out in 2016–2021 for seven key energy companies listed on the Warsaw Stock Exchange and operating in the Polish energy market. The study found that the best innovativeness performance was achieved by multinationals and companies with a high share of renewable sources in installed capacity and in production. In addition, the identified low degree of involvement of state-owned companies in the energy transition is not conducive to improving innovativeness and strengthening innovativeness at the national level.

Use of hydrogen and AI as an opportunities to increase energy autarky and create business more sustainable

The article discusses the challenges and possibilities of using hydrogen and artificial intelligence (AI) to optimize energy consumption and achieve energy self-sufficiency in Polish enterprises. The current economic situation in Europe, including the global energy and economic crisis caused by the Covid-19 pandemic, broken supply chains, and geopolitical conflicts, has led to a shift towards alternative fuels and AI-supported technologies. Hydrogen is identified as a key resource for this energy transformation, with potential applications as an energy source, energy carrier, and raw material. The article highlights the importance of green hydrogen produced through electrolysis powered by renewable energy sources. The use of AI is proposed to enhance the efficiency, control, monitoring, and prediction of hydrogen generation and storage technologies. The Polish energy sector, which heavily relies on coal, is analyzed, and the need for diversification through the integration of renewable energy sources and hydrogen technologies is emphasized. The article also discusses the challenges faced by prosumers (energy producers and consumers) in the context of intermittent energy production and grid limitations. Energy storage technologies, such as electrochemical batteries and hydrogen storage, are considered as solutions to overcome these challenges. The potential of hydrogen as an energy carrier and the role of AI in controlling and optimizing energy systems are highlighted. The article concludes with a discussion of the findings and a summary of the presented information.

Energy Policy of Poland until 2040: The Challenges and Threats to Energy Security in the Next Two Decades

Poland’s energy transformation will be carried out over the next two decades, and its main objective is decarbonization. Specific goals are included in the energy policy of Poland until 2040. In this context, it should be emphasized that the Polish energy sector requires a complete modernization, especially in terms of electricity supply. The current state of affairs is a consequence of the still too high use of coal in the energy mix. The planned investments are to lead to a deep transition in the Polish energy sector, which will ensure the energy security of the state. The Polish energy policy proposes several methods that are to be used for modernization, i.e., gasification of the electricity sector, implementation of nuclear energy, or the development of renewable energy sources. In this context, it is necessary to identify the challenges and threats to Poland’s energy security. The article presents the current state of the Polish energy sector, the main goals of the EPP 2040 and the resulting threats to energy security.

Analysis of sea waves energy resources in the Baltic Sea and technical possibilities of their usage for energy generation in Poland

Due to the current ecological situation in the world, the demand for renewable energy is growing. Its use does not burden the environment because resources are renewed in a short time, unlike traditional fuels - coal or oil. It can be concluded that the main task of humanity is to choose the appropriate technology for obtaining renewable energy and adapt it to local conditions. The aim of the work is to present the technical, economic and environmental potential of using the wave energy of the Baltic Sea and the possibility of converting this energy into electricity. The theoretical and technical potential of sea wave energy that Poland could use was estimated. The most advanced methods of converting wave energy into electricity were presented, and the most promising technical solutions were selected for use in the Polish Exclusive Economic Zone and off the coast of our country. The selection of the most promising technologies - single and combined wave energy converters was based on reports on the operation of the first experimental wave power plants and wave converters operating in other waters. In terms of technology and economics, obtaining energy from sea waves is much more difficult than using solar or wind energy. However, along with the development of offshore wind farms and access to the infrastructure of the National Power System and the need to give up traditional, emission-related energy sources, wave power plants may have a chance for development in the Polish energy sector. It is an untapped source of renewable energy with great energy potential.

Audit as a Tool Affecting the Management of Economic Security of Companies in the Polish Energy Sector: A Research Report

Audit as a Tool Affecting the Management of Economic Security of Companies in the Polish Energy Sector: A Research Report

Poland’s energy transformation in the context of the challenges of the European green deal

One of the most important socio-economic challenges is the skilful transformation of the economy towards low and zero-emission energy sources. This transformation is ongoing, and Poland, due to its high dependence on coal and high emissions has a challenging task to perform. Hence, the article aims to indicate the activities undertaken by Poland as part of the energy transformation related to the European Green Deal and the impact of energy transformation on the Polish economy. Therefore, the issues discussed include: explaining the principles characterizing the European Green Deal programme, describing the current state of the Polish energy sector, indicating activities that will make Poland a zero-emissions nation, and highlighting the economic implications of this energy transformation at the national level. The analysis shows that the transformation of the domestic energy sector is a long-term, ongoing process. The share of green energy in the national mix is systematically, albeit slowly, growing, and energy sector emissions show a downward trend, although in the current difficult energy situation in Europe, this trend may slow down. Moreover, for systemic and financial reasons it is not possible to quickly replace energy production from coal with other low or zero-emission energy carriers. The study used a critical analysis of the literature and strategic documents on the energy sector, the institutional and legal method, the prognostic method, and inductive inference.

Mobilized Thermal Energy Storage for Waste Heat Recovery and Utilization-Discussion on Crucial Technology Aspects

Changes observed in the Polish energy sector, including the demand for and use of heat, require the introduction of appropriate measures aimed at diversifying the available heat sources, increasing the share of renewable and low-emission sources in heat production, and increasing waste heat recovery and its usage. There is an increasing emphasis on issues such as reducing the carbon footprint, reducing pollution, reducing the use of raw materials, reducing waste heat, and improving the energy efficiency of businesses. Increasingly, the question arises—what technologies can be used as an answer to the identified problems and needs. The solution proposed in this publication to support these needs is the use of mobilized thermal energy storage (M-TES) technology. The use of this technology has great potential, but also involves a number of conditions that need to be taken into account when undertaking the design, construction, and use of this type of technology. The primary purpose of this publication is to provide a detailed description of mobilized thermal energy storage technology, together with a discussion of the various practical aspects associated with the design and use of M-TES. Technology was discussed both in terms of application, but also in terms of specific areas. In the first case—step-by-step, from the design stage to the end-of-life stage. In the second case—one area at a time, including: technical, legal, economic, and environmental. The discussion of the technology is preceded by an analysis of the existing solutions presented in this area. The state-of-the-art shows that, despite the growing interest in the subject, there are still a small number of solutions in this area that have been implemented and are in use. The conducted analysis shows that M-TES is a solution with great potential. However, it is necessary to develop it, especially in the technological, as well as economical, areas.

Evolution of Energy Companies’ Non-Financial Disclosures: A Model of Non-Financial Reports in the Energy Sector

In the 21st century, the disclosure of non-financial information in non-financial reports (N-FRs), in particular in Corporate Social Responsibility reports (CSRRs), integrated reports (IRs), and activity reports (ARs), has a global dimension, and the quality and scope of such disclosures affects both a wide range of stakeholders and the global economy. In the last decade, changing trends, considerations, as well as economic, legal and social factors have significantly influenced the content of corporate disclosures. In the context of N-FRs, special attention should be paid to the energy sector, which is in many ways essential for both the domestic and global economy. Therefore, its functioning also attracts the attention of researchers. The objective of this paper is to show the practical aspects of N-FRs and to assess the quality of reports submitted by companies in the Polish energy sector. The authors assessed the quality of non-financial information contained in the reports of energy sector companies in terms of four key management areas: Environmental Management System (EMS), Quality Management System (QMS), Enterprise Risk Management System (ERMS), and Corporate Governance Principles (CGPs). On the basis of their analysis of all CSRRs and IRs submitted by Polish energy sector companies in Poland in 2010–2020, the authors propose a model for the disclosure of information on these systems. Standardized reporting on these key management areas in the energy sector will improve the quality and usefulness of information from the perspective of all stakeholders. A model like this may be useful in many countries that manage their energy sectors in a similar way, such as Central and Eastern Europe (CEE) and other developing countries.

Origin of clastic partings and their impact on ash yield in mined lignite: A case study from middle Miocene of central Poland

The investigated first Mid-Polish lignite seam (MPLS-1) was formed during the middle part of the Mid-Miocene. It covers ca. 70,000 km2 of the Polish territory and has been mined exclusively from the Konin Basin on an industrial scale for eighty years, that is, since 1942. This seam with a thickness >10 m was exploited for decades, although the interbedded clastic sediments were rather thin (<0.3 m). Unfortunately, the exploitation of increasingly thinner lignite beds (<10 m on average) began in recent years due to the depletion of deposits. The currently mined MPLS-1 near Konin (central Poland) is locally split into 2–3 lignite benches by layers of sand and/or clay, which are 0.3–5.3 m thick. Such relatively thick interseam clastics affect the quality of the lignite that is sent to power plants to produce electricity. Therefore, for the first time in the case of Polish deposits, the quantitative impact of these clastic partings on ash yield of the exploited lignite seam was calculated and presented in this study.The presence of sand and clay strata in the MPLS-1 is very interesting in terms of their origin. The interseam beds of sand we interpret as representing crevasse-splay sediments, while the layers of clay as formed in lakes existing on the surface of Mid-Miocene mires. On the other hand, these clastic partings complicate the planning and process of lignite exploitation. In brief, the interseam sands and clays significantly increase the ash yield of the entire MPLS-1. As a result, larger amounts of ash also have a more negative impact on the environment, because these ashes have to be deposited in water (filling the post-mining depressions), which leads to a strong alkalization of the reservoirs. Therefore, we proposed an original formula on the basis of which the ash yield in the entire exploited lignite seam (MPLS-1) was calculated. Such a scientific approach is innovative in lignite mining, not only in Poland and the Czech Republic. As a result, our calculations along the geological cross-sections and/or mining fronts show that the clastic partings, mined together with the lignite benches, increase the ash yield by 2.5–65.0 wt% to even 74.7 wt% on a dry basis. Such lignites do not meet the Polish energy sector suitability criteria, which are defined as a maximum of 40 wt% of ash. In summary, mining less clastics together with lignite could make electricity production in lignite-fired power plants somewhat cleaner.

Conceptualization and Mapping of Predictors of Technological Entrepreneurship Growth in a Changing Economic Environment (COVID-19) from the Polish Energy Sector

This study seeks to address the issue of the development factors influencing technological entrepreneurship capabilities of enterprises during the COVID-19 epidemic crisis. This research is particularly relevant in light of the leading role given to innovation and science-oriented technology companies in the economic and epidemiological crisis. This study aims to analyze the impact of the changing environment on the predictors of technological entrepreneurship, assess their impact by the management practice and establish a causal relationship between the used variables. The paper draws on foreign literature review, covering fundamental theoretical fields in international management literature, to develop an integrated research framework. Based on a differentiated approach, the collaborative framework emphasizes a range of network processes and attributes, their interactions and moderating managerial relationships related to their impact on companies’ technological entrepreneurship capabilities and their contribution to business outcomes. The study was conducted by means of four-wave research. The factors of models included in the correlation analysis are management functions and demand for new technology. Results show that there is a weak positive relationship between management functions and manager’s technological preferences. These findings show that during COVID-19, firms changed their management practices using digitalization to respond to the pandemic. Additionally, it shows that managers moved towards employing new technologies as a strategic response to the crisis. The results showed a mutual, two-way relationship between the demand for new technology and managers from the planning area, high level scientifically and managers with managerial functions, a quick diffusion of technological innovations and managers with the motivating function, a short lifecycle of products and processes and managers from the short lifecycle of products and processes. Taking into consideration that technology entrepreneurship and innovation are facets of the innovative entrepreneur sector, the need for a holistic approach is needed to support their development during the international economic crisis. The next practical implication derived from the crisis may hinder the ability of entrepreneurs to discover new opportunities for technology development. Moreover, an epidemic shock such as COVID-19 may have an impact on technology entrepreneurial opportunities. This article presents a new look at the theory of management by using the implementation role of predictors of the growth of technological entrepreneurship during the epidemic crisis. In addition, the article obviously contributes to the technology entrepreneurship literature by providing an empirical study that advances a new perspective on the process of developing new technologies in the period of crisis.

Financing Energy Transition in Poland: Possible Contribution of EU Funds

There is a general agreement that the energy transition is necessary on a global scale to avert the threat of a climate catastrophe and that it is very costly. In the EU, this transition is supported by funds under the Multilateral Financial Framework and the New Generation EU Facility. The purpose of the paper is to identify EU financial instruments available for Poland to support the energy transformation, to estimate their scale and assess chances to use these funds. The research methods applied are a critical review of Polish and EU documents and methods of statistical analysis. Against the background of European Green Deal strategy, the author identifies EU funds available for Poland for low emission transition and estimates their size. The paper also addresses the EU institutions’ allegations of violating the EU law by Poland. Main conclusions are as follows. The huge EU support for energy transition is at risk, due to Poland’s refusal to comply with the EU law, as assessed by Commission and the Court of Justice of the EU. This situation creates a double cost for Poland: of non-used EU money and of high penalties for the rejection of the CJEU orders. Costs of the energy transformation are inevitable and must be incurred in Poland not only due to the adaptation to the requirements of the EGD, but also due to the fact that a large part of the Polish energy sector is old and will require replacement in any case. Moreover, Polish products may be denied access to EU market due to non- compliance with EU environmental standards. The EU funds should be a good opportunity to move away from coal and develop new eco-friendly industries. Without energy transformation in Poland, the EU results of climate protection policy will be limited, as the country is one of the biggest GHG emitters. Keywords: EU climate policy, energy transition, EU funds for Poland, greenhouse gas emissions, National Recovery Plan