Polish Criminal Research Articles

WYSTĘPEK FINANSOWANIA TERRORYZMU (ART. 165A K.K.) W KONTEKŚCIE PROBLEMÓW ZWIĄZANYCH ZE STRONĄ PODMIOTOWĄ TEGO PRZESTĘPSTWA

Przedmiotem opracowania są zagadnienia związane z przestępstwem finansowania terroryzmu określonym w art. 165a k.k. Przepis ten w ciągu ostatnich dwóch lat był już dwukrotnie nowelizowany. Druga z nich, przeprowadzona ustawą z dnia 23marca 2017 r., przewidziała daleko idącą modyfikację typów czynów zabronionych uregulowanych w art. 165a k.k., w tym ustanawiając karalność nieumyślnego finansowania terroryzmu. Nowe brzmienie, jakie przybrał ten przepis zostało podyktowane zmianami w regulacjach wspólnotowych, a także wskazaniami Komitetu Moneyval, które legły u podstaw uzasadnienia niekoniecznie zasadnej nowelizacji. Co więcej, za jej sprawą w przepisie tym znalazł się niejeden zapis, który budzi poważne zastrzeżenia, zwłaszcza z perspektywy ratio legis zmian, tudzież zgodności z zasada określoności. Niedoskonały kształt tego przepisu budzi jednocześnie wątpliwości związane z możliwością jego praktycznego stosowania, a w konsekwencji również samą efektywnością zwalczania finansowania terroryzmu. Odnosi się to przede wszystkim do aspektów dotyczących strony podmiotowej typów czynów zabronionych opisanych w art. 165a k.k. Problematyka ta znajduje rozwinięcie w przedmiotowym artykule naukowym.

Konsensualne zakończenie postępowania przygotowawczego w trybie art. 355 k.p.k.

Consensual conclusion of preliminary proceedings under Article 355 of the Code of Criminal ProcedureThe paper focuses on in-court settlement under Article 335 of the Code of Criminal Procedure and its procedural consequences. In particular, the author presents the findings of theory and practice resulting from an analysis of case law concerning the functioning of the consensual mode of proceedings in the Polish Criminal procedure.

The Crime of Identity Theft as an Aftermath of the Development of Modern Technologies – Legal and Criminological Aspects of the Phenomenon in Poland

AbstractThe problem of identity theft is current all over the world. Nowadays we can even observe a tendency for an increasing occurrence of this kind of behaviour. The rapid development of new communication tools and the Internet has made it easier to commit a crime of identity theft than ever before. Despite this seemingly obvious trend in the world, in Poland since 2011, when this phenomenon was criminalized, convictions for identity theft are still one of the rarest situations. Identity theft as a proportion of general identified offences in 2017, according to Police statistics, was only .30%. The paper will present selected legal aspects of identity theft from the Polish Criminal Code, as well as criminological analysis of the phenomenon in Poland. The results of research on identity theft conducted in the District Court in Białystok on court files that ended in a final court judgment covering the years 2011–2016 will also be presented. In the course of the research process, seven cases were found and examined. The analysis was enabled by using a questionnaire, which included forty-nine questions grouped into categories, i.e. characteristics of the perpetrator of the crime, characteristics of the victim, description of the committed act, as well as the course of the pre-trial and judicial proceedings. In the paper, an attempt will be made to find an answer to the question of why the dark number of identity theft crimes in Poland is still great, and this will help characterize identity theft in the area of Białystok.

Criminal Liability of Persons Responsible for Occupational Health and Safety in Poland

<em>This paper focuses on the interpretation of the concept of a “person responsible for occupational health and safety”. Only such a person can be an offender under Article 220 of the Polish Criminal Code. Following an analysis of the legal situation and the rights and obligations of the various entities capable of becoming offenders under said article, the author concludes that the category of persons responsible for occupational health and safety includes only the following: the employer, the person managing employees, members of the occupational health and safety service, OH&S coordinators.</em>

Double-Track System in Polish Criminal Law. Political and Criminal Assumptions, History, Contemporary References

The authors of the penal code of 1932 modelled their reaction measures on the best contemporary standards. The system of criminal response was based on a double-track model, in German called zwei Spuren , in Italian – doppio binario , in which, along with penalties, there were also preventive measures. This system grew out of certain political and criminal assumptions of the sociological school, expressed most fully in the works of Franz von Liszt. Return in contemporary law, to the wide use of preventive measures, post and pre-penal, forces us to return to the sources and to critically examine the assumptions of the indicated approach, including the idea of an incorrigible criminal who should be isolated, not in relation to what he did, but because of who he is. Tracing the history of regulations, in particular their practical application should be a lesson for modern lawmakers.

The Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict under Polish Criminal Law

<em>The aim of this paper is to examine whether the Republic of Poland guarantees cultural property appropriate legal protection in the area of criminal law in the event of armed conflict. The author begins by analyzing the legal acts of international law and presenting the relevant regulations. In the next part of the paper, she examines the current provisions in Polish law. First, she explains the term “cultural property” and its relationship with the term “historic relic”. She then provides an exhaustive analysis of Article 125 of the Polish Penal Code, which is the main provision governing the protection of cultural property in the event of armed conflict. The author also discusses other relevant regulations of the Penal Code. She concludes by assessing the current state of Polish criminal law from the perspective of the protection of cultural property in the event of armed conflict.</em>

Dowody w postępowaniach szczególnych i konsensualnych – zarys problematyki

The paper examines the peculiarities of evidence in sc. “postepowania szczegolne” (special procedures) in Polish criminal process, as well as in the procedures containing the element of the mutual concessions (e.g. art. 335 of Polish Criminal Procedure Code). Some assumptions of the Weberian bureaucracy theory are applied here. Review of the specific evidentiary regulations in the procedures under scrutiny lead to some findings on the way the evidence influences particular procedures. Final conclusions are focused on the trends to be seen in last half of the century in Polish criminal procedure.

Propozycja nowelizacji art. 151 Kodeksu karnego

In this paper the author presents a proposal for amendment to Article 151 of the Polish Criminal Code by rephrasing it as follows: ‘Article 151 § 1. Anyone who causes a person to make an attempt on his/her own life shall be liable to the penalty of imprisonment for between one and eight years. § 2. If the perpetrator of the act specified in § 1 voluntarily prevented the death of the person he/she had cause to make an attempt on his/her own life, the court may apply an extraordinary mitigation of the penalty, or waive the penalty altogether.’. The proposed amendment is justified with the continuously growing number of behaviours causing persons to attempt to take their own lives (which relates to technological advancements, in particular in terms of the development of means of mass communication) and the need to ensure proper legal protection of any person’s life and health.

Zabójstwo a pobicie i bójka z następstwem śmierci (opis fragmentu praktyki sądowej oraz jej ocena z perspektywy ustaleń teorii prawa karnego – przyczynek do rozważań nad różnicą między zamiarem ewentualnym a nieumyślnością)

This article discusses the difference between indirect intent (dolus eventualis) and unintentionality. It is stated that the difference is found not only in the substance of the so-called volitional element of the mens rea of an offence, but also in the substance of the so-called intellectual element. With the help of findings from the area of epistemic logic, it is demonstrated that the difference between the intention to commit an offence and its commission in the form of knowledgeable unintentionality arises from the fact that in the latter case the perpetrator thinks he/she will avoid committing an offence. Considering the above, the authors formulate the relevant proposals of amendment to the provision of the Polish Criminal Code which defines unintentional commission of an offence. The aforementioned analysis was based on an assessment of grounds for judgments in cases involving manslaughter and affray or battery resulting in death.

Kilka uwag na temat przyznania się do winy w trybie art. 335 k.p.k.

The article addresses the topic of significance of the defendant “pleading guilty” in the aspect of application of the procedure under Article 335§ 1 of the Polish Criminal Procedure Code. The discussion concerns the evidential value of explanations comprising “admitting guilt” in the historical perspective and the meaning of “pleading guilty” (Article 388 of the Polish Code of Criminal Procedure) as compared with the criminal procedure legislation of 1928, 1969, 1997. It was pointed to the essence of the basis i.e. “undoubted circumstance” and the proper assessment of the evidence of “pleading guilty” on the basis of Article 335 § 1 of the polish Code of Criminal Procedure. The analysis of the issue in question was presented in the light of the views of scholars of law, Polish case law and ECHR rulings.

Glosa do wyroku Sądu Apelacyjnego w Białymstoku z dnia 30 października 2014 r. (II AKa 221/14, LEX nr 1602865)

The Court of Appeal in Bialystok in its judgment of 30 October 2014 (II AKa 221/14, LEX No. 1602865) stated that the use of violence, unlawful threat or insult solely on the grounds of someone’s national, ethnic, racial or religious affiliation can not find any rational and widely accepted explanation. This is in the meaning of Article 115 § 21 of Polish Criminal Code an action for no reason or, of course, a trivial reason. According to the court, the qualification of the act under Article 119 § 1 of Polish Criminal Code or from Article 257 of Polish Criminal Code does not preclude the application of the provision of Article 57a § 1 of Polish Criminal Code. The author explains the terms “reason”, “trivial reason” and “no reason”, as well as “motivation that deserves special condemnation”. The author critically refers to the submitted thesis, considering that the legislator, by making the mark of the type discussed for the reasons, considers it important. Lack of rationality in wrong-doer act cannot be identified with a inconsequential reason or lack of reason.

Victims of Parental Kidnappings in Light of Polish Criminal Law (Based on the Results of Case Law Research)

[full article, abstract in English; abstract in Lithuanian]
 This paper concerns the victims of parental abductions in Poland. The aim of the article is to present the victims of parental abductions in the light of the Polish criminal case law. The study has an empirical character because it presents the results of research carried out using a criminal case law analysis. The study included 59 criminal cases concerning the parental kidnapping of a child. The research revealed that the Polish law treats the person from whom the child was kidnapped as a victim of parental kidnapping. Interestingly, the child is not considered a victim. Based on the research, a conclusion was formulated that parental abductions are not only the result of disputes between the parents of a child, but that children can also be abducted from the care of other people, for example, the directors of orphanages or grandparents who look after the children. This article argues that parental abductions are not only a problem for families but also for institutions professionally involved in childcare.

Abolitionist Trend in Polish Criminal Law in the 20th Century

The death penalty was present in the Polish Criminal Law starting with Makarewicz Code, through 1950’s decrets to the Criminal Code of 1969. During that period, crimes punishable with death penalties were constantly changing. From last execution in 1988, there was abolition de facto in Poland. It changed into abolition de iure in 1995. The Criminal Code of 1997 does not include death penalty as penalty. Poland signed two international treaties which provided total abolition even in a time of war or other public emergency threatening the life of the nation.

O odpowiedzialności nieletnich w warunkach określonych w art. 10 § 2 k.k. za różne postaci współdziałania przestępnego. Część pierwsza

The entire study is devoted to the question of the imputability of criminal responsibility to a minor acting under the conditions set out in Article 10 § 2 of the Polish Criminal Code for acts committed in various phenomenal forms. In the first part of the study, the author presents four concepts existing in this field in Polish literature and basic arguments for each of them. He pointed to his own concept and justified it by referring to complicity and multiplicity.

Zgwałcenie. Gdy termin nabiera nowej treści. Pozorny brak zmian i jego skutki

The Council of Europe Convention on preventing and combatting violence againstwomen and domestic violence (further: CETS210, Istanbul Convention, Anti-violenceConvention) became part of the Polish legal system on 1 August 2015. The IstanbulConvention incorporates a specific legal provision on rape, namely Art. 36 CETS210.It states that the Parties should take the necessary legislative or other measures toensure that the intentional conduct described in Art. 36 CETS210 is criminalised.Article 36.1a CETS210 states that rape takes place when engaging in non-consensualvaginal, anal or oral penetration of a sexual nature of the body of another person withany bodily part or object.Rape is respectively regulated in Art. 19 7 of the Polish Criminal Code 1997 (further,k.k.). However, the context of Art. 197 k.k. significantly differs from the wordingof Art. 36 CETS. Whereas Art. 36 CETS protects freedom, autonomy and sexualautonomy of the person, Art. 197 k.k. protects merely sexual freedom combined withprotecting the social customs. In order to establish the presence of rape, one needs toprove the presence of violence, psychological aggression and/or deception. Protectingsocial customs implies an additional burden because it allows evaluating the behaviourof the victim rather than the one of the perpetrator. The Istanbul Convention is orientedon eager elimination of violence against women and domestic violence. Therefore, itestablishes that the Parties should take the necessary measures to promote changesin the social and cultural patterns and behaviour of women and men with a view toeradicating prejudice, customs, traditions and all other practices which are based onthe idea of the inferiority of women or stereotyped roles for women and men (Art.12.1 CETS210). It is within this line that rape regulation should follow.The question that is tackled in this article is as follows: to what extent doesthe difference in the legal description of the act of “rape”, and the difference in protectedvalues by legal provision in Art. 36 CETS210 and in Art. 197 k.k. make an ontologicaland normative difference? Are they not possible to be reconciled? Or, is the meredifference in the words describing what “rape” not an obstacle to achieving the goalsexpected by Art. 36 CETS210?The problem is not an artificial one especially in view of the fact that the Polishlegislators did not amend the text of Art. 197 k.k. upon the ratification of CETS210. It would suggest that the Polish legislator was of the opinion that there is no definitedifference between Art. 36 CETS210 and Art. 197 k.k. The text examines what happen eswhen an old term acquires new meaning.Is Art. 197 k.k. despite the lack of amendments filling the value required by Art.36 CETS210? Or, is the sameness expected by the Polish legislator false? By demonstratingvital differences in the protected values and the action required establish ingthe presence of the rape, I call for amendments to fulfill the state legal obligations toobserve the Istanbul Convention.The article deals with the ontological difference in the legal concept behind the textof Art. 36 CETS210 and Art. 197 k.k. While Art. 197 k.k. is built on the concept of sexualfreedom, Art. 36 CETS is developed on the concept of sexual autonomy. I elaborateon that.The changes in the protected values incorporated in Art. 36 CETS210 lead toabandoning the concept of sexual freedom established in Art. 197 k.k. and adoptingthe concept of sexual autonomy. While the former concept of sexual freedom, asin Art. 197 k.k., uses violence, psychological aggression and/or deception to establishthe presence of rape, for sexual autonomy as defined in Art. 36 CETS210 the line iscrossed where the consent was not present. While sexual freedom limits freedom to torefusal, sexual autonomy demands the presence of consent. Not violence, aggressionor deception, but the lack of consents matters.The term and concept of sexual autonomy was first explored by the EuropeanCourt of Human Rights in the landmark European Court of Human Right (furtherECHR) judgment M.C. v. Bulgaria (No. 39272/98). The case is thoroughly analysedto further illuminate the difference between the two concepts behind the differentapproaches to defining “rape”.The article, however, starts with an in-depth introduction to the goal of the IstanbulConvention, which is to place the issue of rape in a proper perspective. Apart froma criminological analysis of the concept of rape, the article discusses the values protectedby, respectively, Art. 36 CETS210 and Art. 197 k.k. and compares the similarities andactual differences. A similar examination is related to the description of “rape” in Art.36 CETS and Art. 197 k.k. Last but not least, the subject is evaluated, taking the Polishcriminal dogmas into consideration.The conclusion of the examination leaves no room for assuming that Art. 197 k.k.fulfills the requirement stipulated by Art. 36 CETS210. It is, therefore necessary, toamend Art. 197 k.k.

Przestępstwo samouwolnienia się Uwagi na tle orzeczeń Sądu Najwyższego o sygn I KZP 11/16 oraz I KZP 3/17

Problematyka przedstawiona w artykule dotyczy kwestii odpowiedzialności karnej skazanego odbywającego karę pozbawienia wolności z zastosowaniem systemu dozoru elektronicznego, który w okresie jej odbywania oddala się samowolnie z miejsca jej wykonywania lub też w inny sposób dokonuje obejścia zabezpieczeń. W związku z tym powstało zagadnienie prawne, które zostało przedstawione Sądowi Najwyższemu i które dotyczyło możliwości kwalifikowania takiego zachowania z art. 242 § 1 k.k. przewidującego odpowiedzialność karną za przestępstwo tzw. samouwolnienia się. W wyroku SN stanął na stanowisku, że co do zasady taka kwalifikacja prawna czynu sprawcy jest dopuszczalna, z czym jednakże nie można się zgodzić, ponieważ pojęcie „uwolnienia się od pozbawienia wolności” na gruncie art. 242 § 1 k.k. wykładać należy wąsko, tzn. obejmuje ono jedynie sytuacje faktycznego pozbawienia wolności. Tymczasem stosowanie dozoru elektronicznego stoi w sprzeczności z tak określonym pozbawieniem wolności.

Ocena zmiany art 240 § 1 k.k. przez rozszerzenie zawartego w nim katalogu czynów zabronionych o art. 197 § 3 i 4 k. k.

Artykuł dotyczy zmian wprowadzonych ustawą z 23 marca 2017 r. o zmianie ustawy – Kodeks karny, ustawy o postępowaniu w sprawach nieletnich oraz ustawy – Kodeks postępowania karnego. Rozważania odnoszą się do zasadności rozszerzenia katalogu czynów zabronionych zawartych w art. 240 § k.k. 1 o art. 197 § 3 i 4 k.k. Analiza została przeprowadzona dwuaspektowo. Po pierwsze, dokonano oceny, czy wprowadzone zmiany zostały umieszczone w prawidłowym miejscu, z uwagi na dotychczasowe brzmienie art. 240 k.k. i jego rolę w systemie prawa karnego. Po drugie, odniesiono się do sytuacji ofiary przestępstwa zgwałcenia, mając na uwadze fakt, że została ona już znacznie zmieniona po zniesieniu wnioskowego trybu ścigania sprawców tego przestępstwa. Wreszcie, podjęto próbę pogodzenia konieczności realizacji funkcji prewencyjnej prawa karnego oraz interesu ofiary przez podniesienie w tym zakresie postulatów de lege ferenda.

Przestępstwo stalkingu w świetle badań białostockiej szkoły kryminologii

Przestępstwo stalkingu należy do przestępstw stosunkowo niedawno wprowadzonych do polskiego kodeksu karnego. Natomiast już obecnie można spostrzec, że stało się jednym z najczęściej popełnianych przestępstw przeciwko wolności. W opracowaniu zostały przedstawione wyniki badań nad tym zjawiskiem przeprowadzone w Sądzie Rejonowym w Białymstoku na aktach sądowych zakończonych prawomocnym wyrokiem sądu obejmujących lata 2011-2016. W toku procesu badawczego zbadano łącznie 60 spraw z art. 190a k.k. Analizy dokonano przez zastosowanie kwestionariusza badań aktowych, który obejmował 49 pytań pogrupowanych w kategorie: informacje ogólne oraz kwalifikacja czynu, charakterystyka sprawcy przestępstwa, charakterystyka pokrzywdzonego, opis popełnionego czynu, a także przebieg postępowania przygotowawczego oraz sądowego.

Remarks on codex crimes of capital fraud art. 311 CC in the background of neighbouring countries

The subject of the article is the presentation of the genesis of criminalisation of capital fraud in the Polish Criminal Code. Further edits of the projects of this crime in the drafts of the current Criminal Code are also analysed, as well as the scope of criminalisation and the problem of repression of capital fraud in Polish criminal law. In addition, solutions proposed to criminalise capital fraud in neighbouring countries are presented. These analyses provide the basis for reporting significant legislative changes.

General directives of judicial sentencing. Remarks in the context of the Polish Criminal Code

The present paper was devoted to the issue of general directives of judicial sentencing. Assuming that such a status is held by the indications enumerated under Article 53 § 1 of the Polish Criminal Code i.e., the degree of culpability, the degree of social harm of a criminally prohibited act, individual prevention and general prevention, in the present paper attention was devoted not only to the essence of the mentioned indications of judicial sentencing, but also to their actual role in that process. The performed analyses allowed for formulating a conclusion that extra-legal factors, following from knowledge and experience of the adjudicating body, do not remain without importance.