Polish Areas Research Articles

Spatial diversification of property tax policy – Searching for yardstick competition in Polish metropolitan areas

This article contributes to the ongoing debate on local tax policy-making, in particular regarding yardstick competition in the area-based property taxation system. Based on data from 300 municipalities located in ten metropolitan areas in Poland over ten years, we identify whether we are faced with tax mimicking induced by political considerations in tax rates setting. In particular, we seek to identify whether the spatial interdependence of property tax rates set by local governments of Polish municipalities is driven by a yardstick competition mechanism.The analytical approach is based on the estimation of the spatial residential property tax reaction function by using spatial autoregressive panel models. In order to verify the presence of yardstick competition, we include a set of purely political variables in the models and test their impact on tax rate decisions.The results confirm the evidence of yardstick competition, which, however, is present only in a few of the examined metropolitan areas. We found nominal tax rates for residential buildings that were significantly lower in election years, and empirical evidence of several political factors influencing local tax policies in Poland.

Understanding residents’ acceptance of professional urban and peri-urban farming: A socio-economic study in Polish metropolitan areas

The aim of the study is to present residents’ views on the perceived risks and acceptance of the maintenance and development of professional Urban Farming (UF) in selected Polish metropolitan areas. Attention was mainly devoted to exploring factors in the acceptance of UF, including the importance of perceived risks associated with urban farming, physical and social distance and the socio-economic characteristics of residents. We surveyed 577 participants from urban and peri-urban areas. The results obtained show that UF is accepted by residents: over 70% approve lasting maintenance of agriculture in metropolitan areas. The analyses show that acceptance of UF depends on two groups of factors: the perception of the risks of UF and the social distance from agriculture. People perceiving a lot of risks associated with urban farming and being characterized by a large social distance to agriculture, i.e. those who do not know farmers, do not take advantage of the offer of UF. Participants who are not involved in various forms of urban and peri-urban agriculture are skeptical about the development of UF. Conversely, those who see fewer hazards and are more closely related to this sector (low social distance) are advocates of this concept. The study shows that the socio-economic characteristics of residents, including age, education, and financial situation, do not differentiate acceptance of UF significantly. The formulated recommendations, i.e. regarding educational activities or the popularization of short supply channels, can help increase acceptance for the maintenance and development of UF.

Farming Systems Changes in the Urban Shadow: A Mixed Approach Based on Statistical Analysis and Expert Surveys

Due to the growth of the “urban shadow”, farming systems in metropolitan areas (MAs) are characterized by specific environmental, economic, and social pressures. Urbanization pressure and its related threats, as well as the opportunities resulting from a convenient location close to consumers’ markets, cause rapid farming systems changes. The present study provides a quali-quantitative overview of change in farming systems in selected Polish metropolitan areas. Various statistical methods were applied to analyze changes in farming systems. First, farming system changes were characterized for the study area by the exploratory factor analysis. In addition, experts’ opinions (qualitative data) on changes in farming systems until 2027 are presented. The research conducted showed that there are a few main patterns in changes to/adaptations of farming systems: Horizontal growth of farms, farmland concentration, process of specialization (horticulture, orchards), trajectories towards more multifunctional farming practices (off-farm diversification, as well as “deepening” and “broadening” strategies), reduction of livestock farming, deintensification and farmland abandonment. Those processes vary in space, and they are only partially explained in terms of distance to the core city (location). Experts forecast that the identified trends will continue, paying attention to the growing importance of multifunctional agriculture and the intensification of recessive processes, including farmland abandonment and excessive deintensification of production. According to the experts surveyed, most farmers will continue to apply traditional development strategies, which will be ineffective without the possibility of increasing the area of farms.

Can citizen science increase trust in research? A case study of delineating Polish metropolitan areas

We assess the relationship between citizens’ participation in scientific research and public trust in research results within social sciences. We conduct an online citizen science quasi-experiment concerning the delineation of metropolitan areas of Poland’s two major cities. It consists of two stages. In stage one, participants in one region are exposed to citizen science and directly involved in delineating the boundaries of their local metropolitan area. In stage two, we add another region in which participants are not involved in the research process. In both regions we ask the participants to evaluate the level of their trust in the presented maps of respective metropolitan areas: based on citizen science in one region and historical data regression analysis in the other region. Our contribution to the literature lies in two areas. First, we demonstrate how citizen science can be used in urban studies to delineate boundaries of urban and metropolitan areas exhibiting strong functional connections. Second, we show that the participation of local residents in the research process increases public trust in the study results compared to non-participatory ‘traditional academic’ research. These results confirm that citizen science programs deserve to be strongly supported by European institutions as a possible means to resolving the credibility crisis of science, research and evidence-based policies.

Die Vollnamenhinterglieder -mir und -mer in slawischen Personen- und Ortsnamen

The Old Russian personal names Volodimirъ, Vladimirъ and Volodimerъ form the basis for this study. The origin of the second component -merъ is controversial. Does it go back to Proto-Slavic *-měrъ or did it come from the Germanic languages? Up to now the extent of its occurrence in the Slavic languages has also been unclear. For this reason, more precise research was conducted on the basis of personal and place names in the Czech, Old Sorbian, Old Polabian and Polish language areas. Two place name maps illustrate the results for the Czech area. The component -mer of compound names could not be reliably verified in any of the four language areas. For South Slavic, several old names with -mer were found in Greek sources. Together with the few Old Russian compound names ending in -merъ this indicates a Proto-Slavic origin for this component.

Distribution and extent of benthic habitats in Puck Bay (Gulf of Gdańsk, southern Baltic Sea)

The majority of the southern Baltic Sea seabed encompasses homogenous soft-bottom sediments of limited productivity and low biological diversity, but shallow productive areas in the coastal zone such as wetlands, vegetated lagoons and sheltered bays show a high variety of benthic habitat types offering favourable biotopic conditions for benthic fauna. Within Polish marine areas, semi-enclosed Puck Bay (the western part of the Gulf of Gdańsk) features an exceptionally diverse environment covering a range of benthic habitats which underscores its unique biological value and aesthetic quality and providing an impetus for conservation and ecosystem-based development. Full-coverages maps on benthic habitats in this area are therefore a necessary foundation for maritime spatial planning and implementation of strategies for sustainable management and protection of the coastal environment. This study presents the first comprehensive description and distribution of benthic habitats in Puck Bay which were categorised using the revised EUNIS 2019 classification system. Typological analyses were carried out based on inventory datasets from 1995 to 2019 including scientific publications, satellite images, open databases, topographic and geological maps, reports, theses, information available on websites and unpublished data shared willingly by individual researchers and administrative institutions. Collating various spatial data sources, that were first georeferenced and then visualized using techniques available in ArcMap 10.4.1 software (Esri), resulted in the mapping of benthic habitats and sites of important and protected plant species, which can contribute to the high confidence in environmental assessments and monitoring activities.

Technical Infrastructure as an Element of Sustainable Development of Rural Regions in Małopolskie Voivodeship in Poland and Trnava Region in Slovakia

The work discusses issues of the infrastructure, its instruments, and specifics of infrastructure in Polish and Slovak rural areas. The aim of this article is to analyze the level of technical infrastructure development in rural regions of the Małopolskie Voivodeship in Poland and the west part of Slovakia—Trnava self-governing region (Trnava region) as two regions with a similar position regarding regional competitiveness index. Following the topic, after identification of strengths and weaknesses of mentioned regions, the opportunities, and threats of sustainable development of infrastructure in rural areas have been analyzed using the SWOT method. The development of sustainable, reliable, and functional infrastructure does not only refer to the chosen regions of Poland and Slovakia but also other regions in the European Union. Sustainable infrastructure is a factor stimulating social and economic progress as one of the most important determinants of sustainable development and regional competitiveness. The authors notice a particular lack in the sustainable development of infrastructure in the field of water and sewerage management together with the supply of water. Therefore, this article tries to complete the gap in research focusing on the concept of a more systematic approach to technical infrastructure improvement in the context of sustainable development, and strategy of cooperation.

1920 in the Memory of Central Europeans: A Regional Panorama

The year 1920 plays key a role in memory politics in East-Central European countries, too. Reconstruction had already been under way at some places and in newly annexed areas new authorities began to establish themselves. Elsewhere, for instance in Polish, Ukrainian and Belarussian areas, military operations had yet to end. Moreover, the border between Poland and Lithuania, as well as Poland and Germany (in Eastern Prussia) were uncertain, while Silesia (Śląsk in Polish and Schlesien in German) was in upheaval and the future of Fiume had yet not to be settled. Thus, it is not surprising that the events that took place a hundred years ago are among the most salient questions for historical research and memory politics. In this paper, we survey these in the form of brief, country-specific summaries.

Sustainable Social and Environmental Evaluation of Post-Industrial Facilities in a Closed Loop Perspective in Coal-Mining Areas in Poland

The article discusses issues related to the circular economy ideas applied to post-industrial facilities and infrastructure in Polish coal-mining areas. The aim of the article is to indicate directions for sustainability-oriented actions on reusing the remnants of closed mining plants and reshaping the areas which will be transformed under the just transition principles. For this purpose, the article reviews the terminology related to inventories of such facilities and their classification, and also indicates some locations of such facilities. The authors discuss the problem of legal regulations related to the process of closing a mining plant in Poland and also to EU guidelines on the allocation of financial resources from the Just Transition Fund (addressing the EU coal industry, climate change and the potential for clean energy solutions). This research aims at reviewing current research on the above aspects and at raising the problem of managing post-industrial facilities in light of their discontinued function due to mine closure. The article offers a preliminary diagnosis of the scale of research required to investigate the above problems in the view of the expected coal-exit in the Polish economy.

The Economic Effects of New Patterns of Energy Efficiency and Heat Sources in Rural Single-Family Houses in Poland

In the face of severe air pollution and implementation of energy and climate policy, it remains a challenge to develop effective strategies addressing the problem of solid fuels use in single-family houses (SFH) in rural areas in Poland. This study investigated the correlations between thermal modernization of SFH, the changes of heat sources from coal to clean energy, including heat pumps driven by prosumers’ photovoltaic (PV) installation, and the disposable income of households in Polish rural areas. It also provided an analysis of the current support mechanisms promoting energy efficiency and PV development. The application of simulation modelling of energy consumption and costs in the research has proved that comprehensive thermal modernization of rural SFH constructed in the period of 1945–1970 and investments supporting PV/heat pump systems would enable the most cost-effective way of heating to be implemented. Considering that, today, spending on energy for heat puts a burden on the budget of rural households, especially those living in the SFH aged 50 years and more that dominate rural areas in Poland, the changes in energy supply–demand patterns would be an enhancement of their economic, energy and environmental security. The research argued that, in the wider process of energy transformation and solving air pollution problems, the role of rural households should not be neglected in public policy.

The Impact of Retail Chains on the Structure of Small Towns and Rural Areas in Poland

The retail trade and services are becoming the most dynamically developing sector of non-agricultural activity in Polish rural areas. State-owned and cooperative stores have been closed down and they were replaced mostly by private stores. There are more and more commercial outlets of various formats, including supermarket chains, discount stores and integrated chains. Despite the growing number of modern retail trade formats, traditional small-format, often referred to as the local market, is also really important. Retail chains in small towns and rural areas are mainly located in the zones of influence of larger cities. They affect many changes of spatial, social and economic character. Small towns and rural areas more and more frequently start to compete for further retail trade investments while noticing lots of benefits and costs of this process. The aim of the article is to show the scale of new retail investment in small towns and rural areas in Poland and to recognize the impact of locating discount chains and supermarkets in small towns and rural areas on the economic and social sphere of these places. In the territory of small towns transformations of the structure of trade can be observed, mainly as a result of changes in the consumer behaviour. In small towns, functional and spatial transformations related to the retail sector take mainly from the expansion of grocery supermarket chains. The future of small traditional stores in small towns and rural areas is uncertain. Despite the restrictions in terms of the diffusion of consumer behaviour trends from metropolises to their outer areas, transformations seem to be inevitable. This change process should, therefore, be studied systematically. Research devoted to this field is important from the point of view of choosing the location of new investments related to discount chains and of the strategy for the development of small towns and rural areas. Identification of consequences of the operation of discount chains in chosen rural areas and in small towns can impact the verification of the policy adopted by local authorities in relation to spatial planning and forming the functional structure.

Measuring polycentric urban development: The importance of accurately determining the ‘balance’ between ‘centers’

In recent years, much research has been devoted to developing appropriate analytical frameworks to capture polycentric urban development (PUD). In a recent contribution to this journal, Bartosiewicz and Marcińczak (2020) present what is arguably the most comprehensive, comparative review to date of the degree to which different analytical frameworks produce consistent results. The purpose of this research note is to show why we believe parts of Bartosiewicz and Marcińczak's (2020) findings need nuance and qualification. Our starting point is that a useful comparison between different studies and measurement frameworks needs to consider the relevance of consistency in several key dimensions, two of which are particularly pertinent here: (1) the careful specification of what constitutes a ‘center’ in a polycentric urban system, and (2) the identification of the ‘balance’ between centers as a measure of the degree of polycentricity. Two brief empirical analyses of the degree of morphological polycentricity in Polish NUTS-3 areas and the Chinese city-regions along the ‘Yangtze Economic Belt’ are included. Finally, suggestions are provided to facilitate future comparative analyses of PUD.

The Scarecrow as Part of Polish Rural Cultural Landscapes

Diverse historical, cultural landscapes can be found in many parts of the world, and also in rural areas. They are a challenge for interdisciplinary research. One of the gradually disappearing components of rural cultural landscapes in Poland is the scarecrow. The objective of this paper was to analyse the role of the scarecrow in the Polish rural cultural landscape today. The field research was aimed at determining whether the scarecrow can be seen in Polish rural areas, and if yes, what the circumstances and its forms are. A site visit yielded copious photographic records of rural areas. The investigated area was selected following a literature analysis and analysis of environmental and economic conditions on the regional level in Poland. The visit demonstrated that although scarecrows are part of the cultural landscape of the Polish countryside, they are slightly more modest in their appearance than in the past. Scarecrows are placed in small, family-owned agricultural holdings that have time to uphold local traditions.

INVESTMENTS IN WATER MANAGEMENT IN RURAL AREAS

The aim of this study is to evaluate the implementation of environmental investments in rural areas and prepare a ranking of voivodships. Detailed studies covered Polish rural areas according to voivodship division and were focused on environmental investments related to water management: the sewage network, water supply systems, collective and individual sewage treatment plants, water treatment plants and flood embankments. The research period covered the years 2010-2019. The research uses indicators characterizing investments in water management. The method of zero unitarization was used, which allowed to compare the values of the adopted indicators and establish a synthetic indicator determining a ranking of voivodships according to the implementation of environmental investments. Research shows that more than half of all expenditure are investments related to the sewage and water supply network. The exceptions are the Łódzkie and Podkarpackie voivodships, where greater expenditure is incurred on collective treatment plants than on the water supply network. The values of the synthetic index make it possible to determine the regions where the most and least environmental investments were implemented. The highest values of the synthetic index are found in the Mazowieckie, Wielkopolskie and Małopolskie voivodships. The lowest values of the indicator are recorded for the Opolskie, Podlaskie, Świętokrzyskie and Śląskie voivodships, where the least environmental investments were implemented.

The Chotyniec agglomeration and its importance for interpretation of the so-called Scythian finds from south-eastern Poland

Artefacts of eastern provenance, so-called Scythian ones, have been registered in Polish areas for a long time. In the western part of Polish lands, they were most often linked with Scythian invasions, and this explanation of finds was emphasized by destroyed settlements. In eastern Poland, the presence of similar artefacts, was interpreted rather in the context of contacts with the forest-steppe zone, and their almost neighbourly character was confirmed by characteristic decorations and parts of clothing. Discoveries related to the fortified settlement in Chotyniec (south-eastern Poland), together with accompanying settlements from the same time, allow for a slightly different view on the so-called Scythian finds recorded within the eastern groups of the Lusatian circle. The agglomeration should be treated as the farthest northwest enclave of the forest-steppe variant of the Scythian culture and as transmitter of certain cultural patterns. It is also a cultural phenomenon that plays a key role in the reception of the so-called eastern cultural elements.

Managing Rural Areas in the Context of the Growing Debt of Polish Local Government Units

Local development is a long-term process of economic transformation. To make it happen, expenditure must be incurred, especially including investments. At a local level, the financial burden involved in the transformation is mostly on local government units. Although a three-level administrative system is in place in Poland, bottom-level units (municipalities) are largely responsible for driving local development. Polish rural areas make up over 90% of the national territory, and rural municipalities alone are home to 11 million people, i.e., 30% of the total population. Poland’s accession to the European Union and the ability of local government units (LGUs) to use Union funds contributed to local development, in particular by making many rural municipalities a more attractive place to live and invest in. However, a rapid increase in debt levels was another consequence. Excessive indebtedness of LGUs threatens not only their stable operation and local development but also the stability of the whole public finance sector. The main purpose of this study was to assess the level of and differences in indebtedness of Polish rural municipalities, and to identify the key socioeconomic conditions of debt. The analysis period was 2007–2017. This article used the TOPSIS routine to develop a synthetic indicator of municipal debt levels. An ordered logit model was also employed to identify the key conditions behind municipal indebtedness in Polish rural areas. This study found that, in 2007–2009, most rural municipalities (over 50%) recorded extremely low or low levels of debt while only one-fifth were at high or extremely high levels. In turn, already in 2015–2017, more than one-third of all rural municipalities were at a high or extremely high level of debt. The study also allowed to validate the research hypothesis formulated in this paper, namely that “the key reason for the growing level and diversity of indebtedness of Polish rural municipalities is the investment activity of local authorities in seeking funds from the European Union”.

Enclaves of Isolation and Neglect in Rural Areas. Evidence from North-Eastern Poland

This article focuses on the specificity of present enclave structures in rural areas that were created decades ago as a result of decisions to establish housing estates for employees, and which acquired negative features as a result of the liquidation of the monopolistic employer. An attempt has been made to answer if workers' housing complexes can turn into permanent enclaves of isolation and neglect after the liquidation of a monopolistic workplace, especially if they are located in rural areas? The aim of the paper is to picture the process of social exclusion emergence in the rural areas, which results from the still unresolved socio-economic problem of the existence of such enclaves of isolation and neglect in Polish rural areas in the 21st century. Despite almost 30 years passing, the areas with spatially and socially isolated settlements have very high unemployment rates, a low level of technical and social infrastructure and a widespread sense of injustice among the people who live there. The empirical basis for the analysis was four cases. The presented stories took place against the historical background of the Warmińsko-Mazurskie Voivodship and the socio-economic background. Studies were conducted in the selected villages with a free-form interview and photographic documentation was prepared. In the result, a close picture of the enclaves was drawn. The examples presented in this article proved that workers' settlements, located around large economic entities distant from existing settlement networks can develop into enclaves of isolation and neglect.

Issues related to creation of borders of the agricultural production space in land consolidation processes in Poland with consideration of soil, water and agricultural landscape protection

The idea of rural areas development in the European Union has been implemented according to sustainable development rules. This approach is also valid in case of Polish rural areas, in particular when arrangement of borders of the agricultural production space is considered. Changes in density and sizes of farms in Poland exposed and intensified situation when agricultural production resources are not utilised, as well as degradation of the natural environment. From the perspective of the agricultural policy it has been estimated that in Poland the process of land concentration should be combined with the process of reduction of the number of farms. This process is performed in Polish conditions in the form of surveying works - in particular, as land consolidation operations. The necessity to follow the sustainable development rules proved that land consolidation works cover too narrow scope of conventional solutions. This process should not ignore ecological, environmental aspects, as well as other aspects related to spatial arrangement and landscape. The paper will discuss solutions of conventional land consolidation works performed in Poland, their scopes and estimation of demands. The land consolidation process is most important in transformation of the agricultural production space, where the basic objective is to improve the farm organisational space with consideration of environmental protection and landscape arrangements. The paper will also present and characterise the possibilities of solutions in the field of soil, water and agricultural landscape protection from the perspective of land consolidation works performed in Poland.
 Keywords: land consolidation, agricultural production space, borders.

Evaluation of the Presence of Methane in Z\u0142oczew Lignite: Comparison with Other Lignite Deposits in Poland

Catastrophic cases of methane explosion during exploratory drilling within the Bełchatów ortholignite deposit have led to testing for methane in other Polish ortholignite mining areas, as well as in the Złoczew deposit, where it is planned to begin mining operations. Initial tests have shown Złoczew lignite to have the highest methane content among the Polish deposits so far studied, comparable with lignite from the Bełchatów deposit, with a methane capacity in excess of 2.5 dcm3/kg at a pressure of 10 bar. Based on the computed values of the Langmuir constant, a determination was made of the quantity of methane that can be desorbed from a pressure of 10 bar to 1 bar, as well as the residual methane content. For all of the tested samples, the residual methane content is between 30 and 50% of the sorption capacity at a pressure of 10 bar. The thermal sorption equations were used to compute values of the limiting isosteric heat of adsorption. Higher values of the heat of adsorption at zero surface capacity may indicate the presence of a small quantity of micro-pores. In the case of the samples with the highest sorption capacity, the limiting isosteric heats of adsorption are low, indicating a low proportion of micro-pores in the lignite. This was confirmed by tests of nitrogen adsorption at 77 K. The proportion of micro-pores in the studied lignites is 2–3%, while the dominant pore fraction is the meso-pores, which in lignite from the Złoczew and Bełchatów deposits account for 50–66% of total pores. It is concluded that the significant adsorption of methane in the ortholignite occurs chiefly in meso-pores because of compression of the gas under increased orogenic pressure. A link is made between the higher methane-bearing capacity of the ortholignite deposits and the degree of gelification of the huminite components, based on simple statistical correlations between the methane sorption capacity and the content of humic gelified maceral. The results concerning methane sorption in lignite from the Złoczew deposit have enabled a preliminary classification of the methane-bearing capacity of Polish ortholignite deposits, which may also be of significance for similar deposits in other countries.

Urban Sprawl Risk Delimitation: The Concept for Spatial Planning Policy in Poland

Urban sprawl is a process shaping the space of contemporary urban areas. The costs generated by this phenomenon force central and local authorities to adopt and implement a spatial policy limiting those costs. However, there is no method in Polish spatial policy that determines the extent of this phenomenon around cities, and thus identifies the area of intervention. Therefore, the purpose of the article is to propose a method of delimitation of urban areas at risk of urban sprawl. The proposed method of delimitation honors the characteristics of urban sprawl relating to spatial structure, socio-economic processes and efficiency of spatial policy. The method can be useful for conducting spatial policy aimed at reducing costs due to urban sprawl. It particularly pertains to the policy implemented at the central and regional level. Research results indicate that, in most Polish urban areas, delimitations used thus far designate too little of the area around core cities. Although the goals of reducing the negative consequences of urban sprawl are formulated at the level of national spatial policy, the methods of delimitation used thus far do not take into account the specificity of this phenomenon. Underestimating the extent of urban sprawl results in a lack of effectiveness of spatial policy due to the omission of specific areas in public intervention. This particularity is related to the fact that these are usually external areas—the most distant from the core city. These areas have the highest costs for urban sprawl. At the same time, these are areas in the early stages of spatial growth, in which a consistent spatial structure can still be kept while implementing proper spatial policy.