Poverty Alleviation Policies Research Articles

Implementation of Machine Learning and Its Interpretation for Mapping Social Welfare Policy in Indonesia

This research leverages data from the 2022 Early Socio-Economic Registration (Regsosek) activity to develop a machine learning model capable of predicting family expenditure levels based on the Proxy Mean Test (PMT) with high accuracy. By integrating the SHAP (SHapley Additive exPlanations) method for model interpretation, we identify the contributions of socio-economic features to expenditure predictions and link them to relevant social assistance programs. We compare two regions, Kulonprogo Regency and Yogyakarta City, representing varying poverty levels, and identify unique characteristics influencing family welfare in each area. The results highlight that effective policy interventions must be tailored to the unique characteristics of each region and family, taking into account dimensions such as housing, education, income, and community expenditures. This research provides valuable insights for policymakers, demonstrating that successful poverty alleviation policies are data-driven and adaptable to the diverse socio-economic realities across regions.

How economic development affects healthcare access for people with disabilities: A multilevel study in China

Meeting the healthcare needs of people with disabilities is an important challenge in achieving the central promise of “leave no one behind” during the Sustainable Development Goals era. In this study, we describe the accessibility of healthcare for people living with disabilities, as well as the potential influences of individuals’ socioeconomic status and regional economic development. Our data covered 324 prefectural cities in China in 2019 and captured the access to healthcare services for people with disabilities. First, we used linear probability regression models to investigate the association between individual socioeconomic status, including residence, poverty status, education, and healthcare access. Second, we conducted an ecological analysis to test the association between prefectural economic indicators, including GDP (gross domestic product) per capita, urbanization ratio, average years of education, Engel’s coefficient, and the overall prevalence of access to healthcare for people with disabilities within prefectures. Third, we used multilevel regression models to explore the association between the individual’s socioeconomic status, prefectural economic indicators, and access to healthcare at the individual level for people with disabilities. The results showed, first, that higher individual socioeconomic status (urban residence or higher educational level) was associated with better access to healthcare for people with disabilities. Second, regional economic indicators were positively associated with access to healthcare at the aggregate and individual levels. This study suggests that local governments, particularly in low- and middle-income countries, should promote economic development and conduct poverty alleviation policies to improve healthcare access for disadvantaged groups.

Investigating the impacts of poverty alleviation on carbon emissions and its mechanisms.

Exploring the relationship between poverty alleviation and carbon emissions can provide theoretical foundations for inclusive low-carbon development. This study empirically explores the impact of poverty alleviation on carbon emissions and its underlying mechanisms using panel data from Chinese provinces from 2007 to 2020. (1) The benchmark regression results indicate that poverty alleviation increases carbon emissions, and this result is robust. (2) Mechanism analysis reveals that promoting the transformation from the primary industry to the secondary industry and fostering consumption growth are important paths for poverty alleviation that promote carbon emissions. (3) Heterogeneity regression results show that effect of poverty alleviation on carbon emissions is more pronounced in impoverished provinces and resource-rich provinces. This study reveals the conflict between poverty alleviation and carbon emissions reduction in China, and reminds the government of the need to implement low-carbon poverty alleviation policies as well as guide people to low-carbon consumption.

An Examination of the Factors Influencing the Urban-rural Education Divide: A Case Study of Cultural Context

As China's per capita GDP index continues to rise, the disparity, especially the education gap between urban and rural development continuously widens, which has an adverse effect on the development of rural areas. Education in rural areas has emerged as a significant concern among the local population. The education difference between rural as well as urban regions can be attributed to various variables, with the often overlooked yet challenging-to-address influences of cultural and historical backgrounds playing a significant role. Consequently, by comparing various research data and literature in urban and rural areas of China, this paper analyzes the specific cultural and historical factors which may contribute to the urban-rural education divide and offers solutions. It is discovered that Confucian culture and the history of the Cultural Revolution are the primary causes of the disparity in education between China's urban and rural populations. At the same time, some historical policies of rural migrant workers may also cause the problem of left-behind children and hence have a negative effect on the disparity between rural and urban areas. China's economic policies, government propaganda, setting some boarding schools in cities, and certain poverty alleviation policies play a significant role in narrowing the education disparity between China's urban and rural populations. It also needs more supervision and long-term stability policies to ensure the future development of the education system in rural areas.

The Impact and Challenges of Poverty Alleviation Strategies on Wealth Gap Between Urban and Rural: Take Guizhou Province as An Example

Over the past 40 years since the initiation of reform and opening-up in China, both urban and rural economies have experienced rapid growth, leading to a significant improvement in the production levels and living standards of the people. However, it is equally important to recognize that the income gap between urban and rural residents has been continuously widening, particularly pronounced in economically less developed regions. Therefore, in order to mitigate the various economic and social challenges brought about by severe income inequality, the central and local governments are working collaboratively to optimize income disparity through poverty alleviation policies. This paper will take Guizhou Province, a chronically impoverished province in western China, as an example to explore the historical evolution of various poverty alleviation policies, the actual benefits in terms of income inequality reduction, relevant challenges and shortcomings, as well as potential lessons that can be drawn from this experience.

Poverty Line Based on the Large Archipelagic Area in Indonesia in Taking Poverty Alleviation Policies

Various efforts to overcome poverty have been carried out by the government but the number of poor people is still quite high. Based on the 1945 Constitution, the Indonesian government has a mandate to realize social welfare for all people. Well-being is characterized by the fulfillment of the material, spiritual, and social needs of citizens. In other words, prosperity can be achieved through poverty alleviation. In alleviating poverty, existing policies have not interpreted the poverty line based on division in Indonesia. This study analyzes more deeply the role of urban and rural poverty lines in the division of regions in Indonesia. The method used is descriptive statistics by grouping provinces into 7 categories of large islands in Indonesia. In addition, the MANOVA analysis method was also used in this study to answer the role of the region on the size of the poverty line. What is interesting about this study is the finding that regional differences play a significant role in influencing the size of the poverty line. This research also revealed the fact that the poverty line gap between regional categories is wide at a significance level below 0.05 in the MANOVA test of between subjects effects.

Islamic Microfinance for Poverty Alleviation

Poverty is a serious problem faced by Indonesia. Most Indonesians are vulnerable to poverty. Various poverty alleviation programs have been attempted and initiated, both by the government and organizations outside the government. The process of changing poverty alleviation policies continues to be renewed. Because all parties realize that poverty is more caused by structural problems, the term structural poverty has emerged. Basically, the government has conducted many programs to alleviate poverty. But in reality, these programs have not been right on target. There is a need for a new design, so that it can be ensured that the program is right on direction and right on target. The Islamic economic system, including Islamic financial institutions, has the right and obligation to participate in managing the resources in this country. This study aims to determine the development of Islamic microfinance for poverty alleviation research trends published by leading journals on Islamic financial economics. The data analyzed consisted of 87 indexed research publications. The data is then processed and analyzed using the VoSviewer application to determine the bibliometric map of Islamic microfinance for poverty alleviation research development.

Policy Design for Extreme Poverty Alleviation in West Lombok Regency

This study aims to analyze the design of extreme poverty reduction policies in West Lombok District. The design of the policy refers to the substance/content of the policies developed for the reduction/prevention of extreme poverty used by the regions. A case study research approach is used to explore the design of extreme poverty alleviation policies. The West Lombok Regency government's policy on poverty alleviation contains various local government programs synergized in accelerating the acceleration of extreme poverty reduction. In addition, it is in the form of efforts to assist the poor for a movement that is actualized in bridging aid recipients to get out of poverty immediately. The construction of extreme poverty reduction policies in West Lombok Regency adopts the concept of an innovation hub to accelerate cross-government programs that target basic services (health and education) in interventions for individual/family change as well as increasing the business capacity of community groups.

Poverty Reduction Effect of Chinese Foreign Aid to Africa: An Empirical Study Based on Panel Data of 48 Recipient Countries

This research examines the impact and mechanisms of poverty alleviation associated with Chinese aid to African countries, utilizing comprehensive panel data from the 2000-2017 timeframe. A detailed exploration of salient indicators - the headcount ratio, poverty gap, and poverty severity - has been conducted to critically evaluate the efficacy of this aid. The study substantiates that Chinese aid meaningfully ameliorates the headcount ratio, lessens the poverty gap, and mitigates poverty severity in the recipient countries. Further examination of mechanisms reveals that the principal stratagem of reducing poverty resides in the proliferation of capital accumulation, fostering job generation, and advancing human capital development in the recipient countries. An assessment of varied outcomes demonstrates Chinese aid to be most potent in poverty alleviation in countries characterized by diminished per capita income and lower corruption indices. When compared, Official Development Assistance (ODA) exerts a more pronounced impact on curtailing poverty severity than other official aids, which have a more potent influence on reducing poverty incidence. Mixed aid-types demonstrate superior efficacy in decreasing poverty incidence, with development aid showing remarkable proficiency in addressing poverty depth and severity. This investigation significantly broadens the existing discourse on the poverty-reduction impact of Chinese foreign aid, offering invaluable insights and articulate points of reference for the enhancement of collaborative strategies in poverty alleviation policy between nations.

Can Solar Photovoltaic Poverty Alleviation Policies Reduce Carbon Emissions and Increase Income in China?

China implemented a solar photovoltaic (PV) poverty alleviation (PVPA) policy of building nearly 0.24 million PVPA power plants in 2014-2020 to fight poverty. However, our current knowledge of its effects, encompassing not only primary poverty alleviation but also secondary objectives such as carbon emission-reduction, remains comparatively constrained. Here, we present a comprehensive assessment of the emission-reducing and income-increasing effects of the PVPA policy using estimated carbon emission factors and a staggered difference-in-difference model based on integrated data from almost all actual PVPA plants in China. Our analysis revealed the co-benefits of emission-reduction and poverty alleviation, with PVPA policy boosting villagers' per capita net income by 2-3% in villages with PV plants. A nonlinear, inverted U-shaped relationship between income and PVPA plant investment was identified with a $2.21 million inflection point. Spatial heterogeneity was observed in the income-increasing effect, with centralized village-level plants proving more effective than rooftop household plants. China's PVPA plants reduced carbon emissions by nearly 3% in 2020 and are projected to generate 774 billion kW h of electricity by 2045, mitigating 715.75 million tons of carbon emissions. The findings from this research offer insights for optimizing antipoverty and climate change policies to facilitate sustainable development goal achievement in China and other developing nations.

SPATIAL REGRESSION AND SPATIAL AUTOCORRELATION ANALYSIS OF THE DETERMINANTS OF POVERTY IN INDONESIA IN 2022

Poverty remains a solemn challenge in Indonesia although the country has made significant progress in recent decades. Even though the government's efforts and various poverty alleviation programs have been carried out, the majority of Indonesia’s population lives below the poverty line. This research aims to examine variables that influence Indonesia's poverty rate by Province in 2022 using spatial regression analysis and spatial autocorrelation. The secondary data used comes from 34 Provinces in Indonesia and is obtained based on the results of publications by the Central Statistics Agency (BPS). The dependent variable is the percentage of poor people (P0), while the independent variables include average lenght of school (RLS), life expectancy (AHH), open unemployment rate (TPT), and Gini Ratio. The analytical methods used include descriptive analysis, multiple linear regression analysis, and spatial regression analysis. It is hoped that this research can provide relevant policy recommendations for developing poverty alleviation policies in Indonesia.

Effects of the Implementation of Transport-Driven Poverty Alleviation Policy on Health Care-Seeking Behavior and Medical Expenditure Among Older People in Rural Areas: Quasi-Experimental Study.

Improving the rural residents' accessibility to and affordability of health care is recognized as a common target globally. The Health in All Policies approach, from the Declaration of Helsinki to the United Nations' Decade Of Healthy Ageing, strengthened the far-reaching effect of large-scale public policies on health care-seeking behavior; however, the effects of national transport policy on health care-seeking behavior is unclear. This quasi-experimental study aimed to examine the effects of the implementation of transport-driven poverty alleviation (TPA) policy on health care-seeking behavior and medical expenditure among older adults in rural areas and the mechanism underlying these effects. We designed a quasi-experiment to estimate the effects of TPA policy implementation on health care-seeking behavior and medical expenditure among older adults in rural areas through a difference-in-differences (DID) analysis based on data from the China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study in 2011, 2013, 2015, and 2018. The underlying mechanism was analyzed and effect modification patterns were further investigated by poor households, health status, and age. Our findings validated a positive contribution of TPA policy on health care-seeking behavior among older adults in rural areas. After the implementation of TPA policy, the number of inpatient visits increased by annually 0.35 times per person, outpatient medical expenditure increased by 192% per month, and inpatient medical expenditure increased by 57% annually compared with those of older adults in rural areas without the implementation of TPA policy. Further, there was a significant modification effect, with a positive effect among poor households, healthier older adults, and those aged 60-80 years. Additionally, the policy improved the patients' capabilities to seek long-distance care (β=23.16, 95% CI -0.99 to 45.31) and high-level hospitals (β=.08, 95% CI -0.02 to 0.13), and increased individual income to acquire more medical services (β=4.57, 95% CI -4.46 to 4.68). These findings validate the positive contribution of TPA policy on health care-seeking behavior among older adults in rural areas; however, the medical expenditure incurred was also high. Concerted efforts are needed to address health care-seeking dilemmas in rural areas, and attention must be paid to curbing medical expenditure growth for older adults in rural areas during TPA policy implementation.

Income inequality and depressive symptoms among Chinese adults: a quasi-experimental study

ObjectiveThere is a lack of causal evidence on the impact of income inequality on depressive symptoms. The impact of China's Targeted Poverty Alleviation (TPA) policy on depressive symptoms is also unclear. Using a quasi-experimental design, this study aims to investigate the causal effects of TPA and income inequality on depressive symptoms among Chinese adults. Study designThis is a population-based study. MethodsThree waves (2012, 2016, and 2018) of the China Family Panel Studies (CFPS), a nationally representative sample of China, were included in this study. We performed difference-in-difference (DID) models to assess the effect of TPA and income inequality on depressive symptoms. We further conducted the mixed effect models to examine the impact of income inequality on depressive symptoms. The study considered a range of spatial factors and spatial splines to address spatial autocorrelations. ResultsThis study included valid measures of depressive symptoms (Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale [CES-D-8] score) from 14,442 adults of CFPS. The DID results indicated that at the provincial level, the CES-D-8 score of the TPA treatment group was on average 0.570 (95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.358–0.783) less than the control group. Furthermore, a 0.1 increase in Gini index would lead to a 0.256 (95% CI: 0.064–0.448) increase in CES-D-8 score. The mixed effect model showed that income inequality was a risk factor for depressive symptoms at the provincial level (excess risk = 5.602% [95% CI: 3.047%–8.219%]). ConclusionsOur findings suggest that income inequality adversely affects mental health, but China's Targeted Poverty Alleviation improves the mental health of the Chinese population.

Changing inequity in health service utilization and financial burden among patients with hypertension in China: evidence from China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study (CHARLS), 2011–2018

BackgroundChina initiated a health system reform in 2009 to achieve Universal Health Coverage (UHC) by 2020. While the effectiveness of health-system reforms has been studied, equity in health-service utilization and financial burden remains underexplored. This study evaluated whether the health system reform has improved the equity in utilization and financial burden of health services among patients with hypertension in China.MethodsWe obtained data from four waves of the China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study (CHARLS) conducted between 2011 and 2018. The main outcome variables were outpatient and inpatient service utilization rates and catastrophic health expenditure (CHE) for patients with hypertension. The Standardized Concentration Index (CI) was used to measure the changing equity in health service utilization and affordability.ResultsOutpatient service utilization was relatively equal among patients with varying socioeconomic statuses (SESs) (CI: 0.041 in 2011 and 0.064 in 2018). Inpatient service utilization inequity improved from CI 0.144 in 2011 to CI 0.066 in 2018. CHE incidence increased from 15.6% in 2011 to 24.2% in 2018. CI for CHE declined from -0.069 in 2011 to -0.012 in 2015 but increased to -0.063 in 2018.ConclusionsHealth insurance expansion and poverty alleviation policies promoted equity in inpatient service utilization for hypertensive patients. However, the financial burden for the poor requires further attention through reimbursement policy adjustments for outpatient services in primary care settings.

Poverty Alleviation Policy Strategy Through Sustainability Development Goals (SDGs) and Indonesia's Economic Resources

The purpose of this research is to examine and provide guidelines for local governments, communities, academics, and the private sector in planning and implementing poverty alleviation activities that are more effective, efficient, and on target. In addition, the specific objectives of this study are: 1) increasing the rate of regional economic growth through optimizing potential sources of regional income, 2) increasing per capita income, and 3) reducing poverty, unemployment, and socioeconomic inequality of the community. The research was conducted in Palembang City, South Sumatra, Indonesia, in the last 10 years, namely 2017-2022. The research approach uses qualitative descriptive analysis. Data sources include secondary data and Regional Statistics. The results of this study are based on the Sustainability Development Goals (SDGs) indicators, there are four priority scales in poverty alleviation, namely, Health and Infrastructure (Priority I), Education (Priority II), Food Stability (Priority III), and Population and Employment (Priority IV). Therefore, as a solution to poverty alleviation strategies, a budget approach through optimizing the regional economy and regional sources of income as well as community empowerment factors is important. In addition, involvement between elements (government, organizations, communities, universities, and institutions) is expected to continue as an effort to realize poverty alleviation can be overcome optimally.

Stakeholder Synergy in Social Innovation: Efforts to Reduce the Impact of Poverty in Indonesia

Objective: The problem of poverty requires a social innovation-based assistance strategy that involves various parties or collaboration in solving a social problem. Poverty alleviation policies are not only centered on bureaucratic aspects but are also always human-centered (human-centered design) in defining and formulating innovative policies. This research aims to identify stakeholders in social innovation in order to overcome the impacts of poverty. Theoretical framework: This research uses 6 dimensions of social innovation in analyzing the impact of poverty in Indonesia. Apart from that, this research also explains the role of stakeholders through the Quintuple Helix concept where there is a continuous balance between government and society. Method: This research is a type of qualitative research with 50 research informants who refer to five requirements for selecting informants. Researchers conducted in-depth interviews with social practitioners so that researchers could get more concrete information about the problems that occurred. Results and conclusions: In the Social Exclusion Dynamics dimension, it was found that the Indonesian Government's policies were able to provide accelerated handling that was not trapped in bureaucratic, techno-technical aspects. By making the community work partners or volunteers who are socially active. The Mobilization of Resources dimension is related to the synergy aspect of multi-stakeholder involvement which is able to provide community capacity development, mastery and understanding of technological information so that it can improve the quality of life. In the Satisfaction of Human Needs dimension, pragmatism in the government system often causes a loss of innovation and creativity in exploring local resources in society. In the context of health service policy, it is often not possible to explore the source of the main problems in society. The dimension of empowerment is the creation of knowledge. Knowledge is data and information combined with ability, intuition, experience, ideas, and motivation from competent sources. In the dimension of Change in Social Relations, social innovation is ultimately able to determine permanent changes in the social environment, power, relations between social groups, government, and society, the state and the private sector. These dynamics are related to those displayed in the triangle of vision, intention, development culture, identity, organizational and institutional dynamics. Meanwhile, in the Territorial Specificity dimension, the research results show that funding for poverty alleviation activities is assisted by CSR programs from industry as well as social assistance from various elements of society, such as institutions, individuals, companies, zakat institutions, foundations, volunteers and others. Research implications: This research has implications for the involvement of stakeholders in social innovation in overcoming the impacts of poverty Originality/value: The value of this research lies in the application of the social innovation dimension through the role of multi-stakeholders in overcoming the impacts of poverty. The research results also provide new value to the role of organic intellectuals which refers to actors who play an important role in society.

A Best-Bet System of Rice Intensification and Poverty Alleviation in Zamfara State, Nigeria: A Mixed Method Analysis

CONTEXTZamfara State is impoverished due to low agricultural productivity, inadequate infrastructure, and insecurity. Research has explored System of Rice Intensification (SRI)’s agronomic benefits but not its monetary and non-monetary advantages for rural households in the State. OBJECTIVEThe study investigates the effectiveness of a best-bet SRI (BB-SRI) as a poverty alleviation strategy in Zamfara State by utilizing Bakolori Irrigation Scheme as a case study. The study's anticipated outcome is to provide insights that inform policies and practices in the agricultural sector. METHODA mixed-method approach, including survey and field experiment, was used to gather quantitative and qualitative data from 300 rice farming households, consisting of both users and non-users of BB-SRI in the BIS, Zamfara State. Foster-Greer-Thorbecke method with two poverty lines and a three-dimensional poverty index with three poverty cutoffs were used to analyze monetary and non-monetary poverty, respectively, while three impact parameters were estimated using two selection models. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONAgriculture is a critical sector in the BIS area of Zamfara State, Nigeria, but limited electricity and large household sizes pose challenges for productivity and food security. The BB-SRI farming method, which is costlier but yields more rice, has been found to increase revenue and profitability for farmers. Poverty incidence varies significantly depending on the production method used, with BB-SRI users experiencing lower poverty rates than traditional farming methods. BB-SRI reduces non-monetary poverty by 52% among its users in BIS and has the potential to decrease poverty by 16% if adopted by all rice farming households in the region. However, the monetary benefits mainly go to those near the upper monetary poverty line, with the poorest sector benefiting the least. While BB-SRI reduces monetary poverty incidence by 83% among its users, there is a 10% increase in extreme monetary poverty. The poverty alleviation impact of BB-SRI varies across different sectors, with some showing larger reductions than others. Overall, if all farmers used BB-SRI, monetary poverty incidence would decrease by 25%, with an actual reduction of 52% among its users. SIGNIFICANCETargeted policies can ensure disadvantaged communities benefit from SRI adoption, balancing trade-offs between increased yields and reduced off-farm work earnings. Poverty alleviation policies are needed to support vulnerable populations, as SRI adoption can improve food security and livelihoods. This research on SRI's impact on poverty reduction in Zamfara State and northern Nigeria contributes to sustainable agriculture literature and policy development.

Can poverty alleviation policy enhance ecosystem service value? Evidence from poverty-stricken regions in China

Existing literature indicates that poverty-stricken regions often exhibit characteristics such as poor resource endowment and weak environmental carrying capacity, which can lead to excessive exploitation of natural resources and degradation of the ecological environment in pursuit of economic development. However, previous research has primarily focused on the economic benefits of development in impoverished areas, overlooking the importance of ecosystem services. This study aims to fill this research gap by examining the impact of China's Poverty Alleviation Policy on ecosystem service values in 51 impoverished counties from 2011 to 2019. Our analysis reveals that the Poverty Alleviation Policy effectively enhances ecosystem service values in poverty-stricken areas, and the fiscal pressure faced by local governments significantly influences the policy's effectiveness in boosting ecosystem service values. Notably, we also find that environmental management policies demonstrate a greater capacity to enhance ecosystem service values in poverty-stricken regions compared to industrial development-led poverty-reduction policies.

Effects of health poverty alleviation project from the perspective of vulnerability to poverty: evidence from five Chinese prefectures

ABSTRACT Background The Health Poverty Alleviation Project (HPAP) has received widespread attention as a primary means of preventing poverty caused by illness. However, further evidence is required to confirm the effects of HPAP. Objective This study examines the effectiveness and mechanisms of action of HPAP using data from a special survey conducted in five Chinese prefectures in 2018–2019. Method This study uses a three-step feasible generalised least-squares method to measure the farm households’ vulnerability to poverty. Hierarchical linear regression and propensity score matching were employed to assess the poverty-reduction effects of HPAP. A mediating effects model was used to test how these policies alleviated poverty. Results The mean vulnerability to poverty among farm households was 0.367, with 11.89% experiencing both poverty and vulnerability, particularly in areas of deep poverty. This study has found that HPAP significantly reduces poverty and is more effective in reducing the vulnerability of non-poor farm households than poor farm households. Additionally, the results suggest that improving human capital stock and reducing medical expenditure are the two pathways through which HPAP can alleviate farm households’ vulnerability to poverty. Conclusions This study suggests that the vulnerability to poverty perspective should be incorporated into poverty alleviation policy formulation. HPAP enhances differentiation and precision. Thus, a long-term mechanism of HPAP should be developed.

Does Targeted Poverty Alleviation Policy Reduce Poverty? Evidence From Rural China

Poverty is a common challenge faced by human beings. China’s Targeted Poverty Alleviation (TPA) policy provides the international community with a Chinese solution to poverty governance. Based on the goal of China’s TPA policy of “Two No Worries, Three Guarantees,” this paper selects appropriate indicators to evaluate the implementation effect of China’s TPA policy since 2013. The results show that there are significant differences between poor families and non-poor families in food consumption, clothing consumption, education, and housing. After the implementation of the TPA policy, the gap between poor families and non-poor families has been significantly reduced. However, from the perspective of per capita household consumption, there is still a certain gap between poor families and non-poor families, and it is still necessary to maintain the continuity to further improve the living standards of low-income families. JEL Classification: I32