Icelandic Policy Research Articles

Wicked Problem of Regional Development Policy in Iceland

With increasing globalization, the influence of global drivers on local livelihood and prosperity is becoming more apparent at the local level. Global drivers are for the most part driven by economic incentives and often disregard sustainable rural development. This paper uses a political economy perspective to investigate how global impacts are affecting regional development policy. This is accomplished via content analysis and literary study of regional development policy documents post-2000 in Iceland, recognized as a predominately rural island nation. Contributing to the literature on public administration and policy in Iceland and elsewhere, the paper argues that regional development and sustainability in rural regions is a wicked problem and emphasises the importance of a holistic perspective in sustainable regional and rural development. Conclusions suggest that place-specific, nuanced approach needs to be taken to meet the demands of sustainable development. As influenced by the new regionalism, places, and the communities within them, differ in environmental, economic, social, and cultural ways. The uniqueness of places underpins the vital importance of inhabitants´ participation in decision making. Moreover, addressing wicked problems at the community level is an easier and a more transparent way to diagnose and manage issues of concern.

Professional support for teachers and children in diverse classrooms

ABSTRACT In recent decades, Iceland has become a more diverse nation, as witnessed, for example, in the increasing diversity of the school population. While recognising these changes, teachers have reported feeling unprepared to respond as they engage with students with culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds. The interview study presented in this article aimed at identifying professional support available to teachers working with children of diverse backgrounds, as well as the support provided to students. Interviews were conducted with two preschool- and two primary school teachers, two principals and multiple professionals working within the municipality in matters related to education and CALD (Culturally and Linguistically Diverse) children. Findings indicate that the participating teachers seldom sought assistance or guidance from the municipality for their own professional development. Standardised reading tests seem influential in the primary school, even as early as in the first grade, somewhat contradicting the characteristics of the official inclusive school policy in Iceland. In some primary schools, the education of CALD children coincides with special needs education. A more direct link between expertise at the municipality level and the teachers seems relevant, as the principals’ communication with the municipality professionals does not necessarily benefit the teachers.

Construction of Childcare Practices Among Icelandic and Polish Parents Living in Iceland: Mixed-Methods Explorations

The parental leave policy in Iceland is designed to encourage both parents to work and care and access to public early education and care (ECEC) for under six-year-olds is widespread. To date, research has not focused on how migrants in Iceland arrange care for their young children. Poles constitute the largest group of first-generation migrants in Iceland, and the study addresses the question of how they arrange care for their children compared to Icelandic parents. A population-based survey and qualitative interviews with parents were used to gain an understanding of the childcare practices of the two groups of parents during the first two years after childbirth. In the study, childcare practices refer to the use of paid parental leave and care arrangements after the leave period is over. The study draws on Bourdieu’s concept of habitus when discussing how parents construct their childcare practices. The findings show that although Polish and Icelandic parents use their entitlements to paid parental leave to a similar degree, their childcare practices are quite different. While there is more emphasis on family care among Polish parents, Icelandic parents rely more on public out-of-home care options, showcasing how parents construct childcare practices in a constant flux of values and the social context in which they live.

National language in a globalised world: are L1 and L2 adolescents in Iceland more interested in learning English than Icelandic?

ABSTRACT Language acquisition and Language Maintenance (LM) both depend on ample opportunity and motivation. Currently, many national language societies are undergoing Language Shift (LS) to English, impacting their acquisition as first (L1) and possibly even more as second (L2) language. This study interviewed 44 adolescents, including 24 L1 and 20 L2 speakers of Icelandic, on their views on the importance of Icelandic and English, whether Icelandic is hard to learn, and their future plans. Qualitative and quantitative results showed highly similar views and future plans across groups; both languages were considered important but for different purposes. However, L1 speakers were far more likely to think that Icelandic is hard to learn, and only L1 speakers attached cultural value to Icelandic. L1 speakers were more ambivalent than L2 speakers on whether immigrants should learn Icelandic. L2 students’ ability to learn Icelandic appears impacted more by lack of opportunity than by lack of motivation. The study suggests that LS to English contributes to decreased opportunities to learn Icelandic as L2. It is further suggested that language policy in Iceland as well as international policy on which languages should be considered vulnerable due to a minority status need to be revisited in a globalised world.

Opinber stefna, skólakerfið og hlutverk kennara: Viðbragðsbúnaður skólans

Undanfarna áratugi hefur alþjóðleg umræða í velferðarsamfélögum beinst að vægi skólans sem undirstöðu velsældar einstaklings og samfélags. Hér er kannað hvernig þessi umræða hefur þroskast við íslenskar aðstæður. Markmið greinarinnar afmarkast við að bregða upp mynd af áhrifum opinberrar skólastefnu á Íslandi á stöðu skólans, kennara og nemenda í nútímasamfélagi. Aðferðin sem hér er notuð er að setja fram sögulegt ágrip af þróun skólamála og yfirlit um niðurstöður nýlegra íslenskra rannsókna um aðstæður og margvíslegar þarfir nemenda og um viðbragðsbúnað skólans gagnvart þeim. Í því sambandi er vikið að vandasamri stöðu kennarans við að sinna kennslu og uppeldishlutverki jafnframt því að láta sig varða velferð hvers barns, einkum innan grunnskólans. Einnig er athygli beint að rökum sérfræðinga fyrir þverfaglegu starfi innan skólans og kerfasamstarfi milli skóla, heilbrigðisþjónustu og félagsþjónustu. Rökin varða einkum börn sem eru tilfinningalega berskjölduð vegna áfalla eða félagslegrar jaðarstöðu. Á grundvelli þeirrar vitneskju sem fengist hefur á þessu sviði er sú niðurstaða rökstudd að aukið fagafl innan skólans ásamt kerfasamstarfi kringum barn í vanda og fjölskyldu þess sé forsenda þess að draga úr álagi á kennara og koma í veg fyrir að kröftum þeirra sé dreift. Aukinheldur hafi slíkt samstarf á grunnskólastigi forvarnargildi fyrir framtíðarstöðu ungs fólks á vinnumarkaði, sem getur falið í sér þjóðhagslegan ávinning. Ræddar eru lausnaleiðir í átt að betri árangri, meðal annars með endurskoðun laga, stjórnskipulags og framkvæmdar stefnu sem mótuð hefur verið.

Perceived Organizational Antecedents of Emerging Collaborative Learning Activities Among Icelandic Beginning Teachers

ABSTRACT Encouraging teachers to participate in collaborative learning activities for professional development has become an important part of educational reform strategies in many countries. Recent research suggests these activities may play an important role in the professionalization of the teaching profession. In Iceland, teachers report the highest level of unmet demand for professional development among countries surveyed by the OECD. As a result, the new education policy in Iceland focuses on collaboration among teachers. This study explores the perceived organizational antecedents of emerging collaborative learning activities among Icelandic teachers as they begin their careers. Based on the survey data from 215 Icelandic beginning teachers, the results show that feedback by school leaders, role clarity and perceived organizational support are strongly associated with collaborative learning activities among beginning teachers, whereas affective commitment to the school organization does not contribute to collaborative learning activities. One implication for practice is that leadership that promotes organizational factors will also promote collaborative activities.

Shifting the Balance of Power: The Strategic Use of the CRPD by Disabled People’s Organizations in Securing ‘a Seat at the Table’

The article highlights how the strategic use of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) by disabled people’s organizations (DPOs) in Iceland has produced a shift in the balance of power with regard to how, and by whom, disability legislation and policy in Iceland is developed. The article draws on a study examining the last stages of a consultative process between representatives of DPOs and policymakers in Iceland leading up to the adoption, in May of 2018, of core disability legislation, Laws pertaining to services for disabled people with long-term support needs (No. 38/2018). It examines the process from the perspective of representatives of DPOs through in-depth interviews and document analysis. This article draws on critical theory and the human rights approach in its analysis, with a particular emphasis on the roadmap to the coproduction of policy provided by the CRPD and the UN CRPD Committee through the issuance of guidance to States Parties to the Convention. It draws attention to the DPOs’ ongoing refocusing of their strategies, and their emphasis on harnessing the rights contained in the CRPD to gain recognition of their right to participation in the coproduction of policy and in changing process norms.

Prescription Stimulant Misuse and ADHD Symptomatology Among College Students in Iceland

Objective: Misuse of prescription stimulant medication is a prevalent problem on American college campuses; however, few studies have been conducted beyond the United States. Although Iceland has the highest methylphenidate prescription rates in the world, prevalence of stimulant misuse within the Icelandic college student population remains to be investigated. Method: We examined the prevalence of prescription stimulant misuse among N = 521 college students in Iceland, using an online survey. Results: Overall prevalence of lifetime stimulant misuse was approximately 13%; 11% among participants without a prescription for stimulant medication, and 42% among participants holding a prescription. The primary reported reason for misuse was academic enhancement; risk factors included male sex, anxiety symptoms, and ADHD symptomatology. Conclusion: The present findings have implications for public health policy in Iceland, particularly as it relates to the college population. Prevention and intervention programs that provide college students with safer strategies to manage academic demands are warranted.

Lýðræðisleg menntastefna: Sögulegt ágrip og heimspekileg greining

Mestan hluta 20. aldarinnar einkenndist stefnumótun íslenskra stjórnvalda í skólamálum af hugmyndum um almenningsskóla sem stofnanir lýðræðislegs samfélags. Það var samt ekki fyrr en árið 1974 sem lög um almenningsskóla nefndu lýðræði berum orðum í markmiðskafla. Fyrri lagasetningar bera hins vegar með sér augljósar lýðræðislegar hugmyndir, ekki síst þá að menntun skuli ná til allra, að skólakerfi skuli vera heildstætt og að aðgangur að menntun skuli einkennast af jöfnuði. Ég mun beina sjónum mínum að opinberri stefnumótun og velta því fyrir mér hvenær, hvort og einnig að hvaða marki megi segja að á Íslandi hafi verið lýðræðisleg menntastefna. Í þessari umfjöllun hafa grunnskólalögin frá 1974 nokkra sérstöðu, bæði vegna þeirrar stefnumörkunar sem birtist í lögunum sjálfum en ekki síður vegna þess margvíslega starfs sem unnið var á vettvangi skólaþróunar í tengslum við þau. Ég mun færa rök fyrir því að á þessum tíma hafi verið eiginlega menntastefna við lýði en að hún hafi svo verið lögð af í sögukennsluskammdeginu á níunda áratug 20. aldarinnar og þegar kom fram á þann tíunda hafi ekki lengur verið við lýði eiginleg menntastefna.

Íslensk menningarstefna

Í mars 2013 samþykkti Alþingi þingsályktunartillögu sem kynnt er sem "Menningarstefna íslenskra stjórnvalda" á vef mennta- og menningarmálaráðuneytisins og er þetta í fyrsta sinn sem slík stefna er sett fram á jafn afgerandi hátt. Í þessari grein er stefnuskjalið skoðað og velt upp álitaefnum er varða menningarstefnu sem yfirlýsingu. Í ljós kemur að tvö meginþemu séu ráðandi í stefnumörkun Alþingis: áhersla á þátttöku og aðgengi annars vegar en hins vegar undirstrikun á mikilvægi fagmennsku og góðrar stjórnsýslu við úthlutun fjár. Þá er minni áhersla á þjóðmenningu eða samanburð við önnur lönd en búast hefði mátt við. Þó ekki sé hægt að tala um einn hlut eða skilning sem rétta skilgreiningu á "menningarstefnu" (O. Bennett 2004; T. Bennett 2007; Frenander 2008; Gray 2010), er mikilvægt að kanna nánar og gera grein fyrir þeim túlkunum á hugtakinu sem kunna að vera ríkjandi hverju sinni. Til þess að fá aukna yfirsýn er litið er til eldri notkunar hugtaksins en jafnframt til samtímans og þá sérstaklega til nokkurra íslenskra fræðimanna sem fjallað hafa um íslenska menningarstefnu á undanförnum árum (Gestur Guðmundsson 2003; Haukur F. Hannesson 2009; Bjarki Valtýsson 2011; Ágúst Einarsson 2012). Þessi mismunandi sjónarhorn segja nokkra sögu um viðhorf um ríkjandi viðhorf.

Excellence, Innovation and Academic Freedom in University Policy in Iceland

This article analyzes three reports on higher education, research and innovation policy in Iceland by using a Foucauldian discourse analysis approach. The reports were released in 2009 and 2012, emphasizing the simplification of the research and innovation system in Iceland. While on the surface the reports include practical recommendations, the study reveals a strong moral stance in the reports which express concerns that too many universities and two small institutions spread efforts too widely. Suggestions to reorganize the system tend to be presented by simply stating that it is important to do so, but sometimes such assertions are also interwoven with arguments for larger and more powerful universities and research institutions. There is a focus in the reports on innovation and the creation of economic value. Research, science, and innovation are firmly combined with the goal of economic growth. There is the undertone that it is relatively easy to define what is good research or even quality research; and the chief criterion seems to be that good research is research that is useful for business and industry. Academic freedom, on the other hand, is rarely discussed in the reports.

Additional workload or a part of the job? Icelandic teachers' discourse on inclusive education

The aim of this article is to examine the discourse of Icelandic compulsory school teachers on inclusive education. From 1974 and onwards, the education policy in Iceland has been towards inclusion, and Iceland is considered to be an example of a highly inclusive education system with few segregated resources for students with special educational needs. In particular, the article focuses on what characterises and legitimises teachers' discourse on inclusive education, the contradictions in the discourse and how teachers have involved themselves in the process. We use the approach of historical discourse analysis to analyse the discourse as it appears in interviews with teachers and media articles on education as well as in key documents issued by the Parliament. The article provides an insight into the complexities of this topic and draws attention to underlying issues relevant to inclusive education.

Effects of Policy Changes on Thai Migration to Iceland

AbstractIn this study, I use ethnographic, survey and Icelandic government data to examine the nexus of recent migration policy changes in Iceland and the increased use of marriage as a migration strategy. In the early 1980s, Thai women began coming to Iceland to either marry Icelandic men or “try out” a potential relationship with an Icelander before marriage. During that time, Iceland approved work permits for foreigners regardless of country of origin, allowing many Thais to immigrate independent of marriage. By 2006, however, Iceland's membership in the European Economic Area was making it almost impossible for Thais and other non‐European migrants to secure a work permit. There has been an increase in marriage‐based migrations among non‐European migrants to Iceland compared to all other types of legal migration since 2006. Iceland's policy changes may have stemmed the flow of non‐European labourers, but may also have opened the door to increased fraudulent marriages and abuse of foreign women by Icelandic husbands. These policy changes have only occurred in the past 5–7 years, and it remains for future research to investigate adjustments made by both Icelanders and Thais in response to the newest laws.

The impact of English on language education policy in Iceland

Iceland, a small Nordic country, is confronting choices about the languages to be used in education, especially in the light of the growing importance of English as an international lingua franca in higher education. This article examines the growth of teaching through English, mainly as a means of attracting international students who lack the ability to study through a Nordic language. It investigates the policies adopted by the European Union to promote multilingualism and suggests that their intentions are not consistently carried out in pragmatic decision-making. The experience of the Nordic countries has been that English is becoming more widely used in higher education, but in Iceland the enthusiasm for English is accompanied by an interest in other foreign languages, as well as a commitment to maintain the presence of Icelandic in all academic domains.

Multimethod research into policy changes in the pharmacy sector—The Nordic case

This article aims to explain the nature of multimethod studies and to illustrate their role in pharmaceutical policy research. In the field of pharmaceutical policy research, methodological and theoretically sound evaluation is the main goal. Reflexive learning is required in order to address and resolve one of the important paradoxes of late modern societies, which is that while the increasing complexity of social systems progressively undermines notions of certainty in social knowledge, it simultaneously raises the stakes in relation to rational guidance of those systems. By reflecting over our own research processes, we identified the strengths and weaknesses of multimethod research. We present our research methods and the experiences of pharmaceutical policy changes from two separate evaluation studies, one from Iceland and the other from Denmark. In addition, examples from a third study in progress are included: a multimethod international comparison of recent changes in pharmaceutical policy in Iceland, Denmark and Norway. Based on our experiences and reflections, we identified four of the most important issues we encountered in carrying them out: The importance of doing research in context; Challenges of comparison and questions of compatibility of data - both qualitative and quantitative; The importance of doing these studies with a multi- disciplinary team; Research in pharmaceutical policy is a fluid, ongoing process.

Skattastefna Íslendinga

Hér er fjallað um skattastefnu Íslendinga með hliðsjón af þróun skattastefnu annarra vestrænna ríkja á síðustu áratugum. Gerð er grein fyrir þremur ólíkum leiðum í skattheimtu: heildstæðum skattkerfum (Comprehensive Income Taxation-CIT), tvíþættum skattkerfum (Dual Income Taxation-DIT) og kerfum með flatan skatt (Flat Income Taxation-FIT). Þróun heildarskattheimtu á Íslandi er skoðuð í samanburði við OECD-ríkin og einnig skattbyrði af ólíkum tegundum skatta (svo sem tekjusköttum einstaklinga og fyrirtækja, neyslusköttum, eignasköttum og fjármagnstekjusköttum). Þá er breytt tekjuskattbyrði ólíkra tekjuhópa sýnd og skýrð sem og ýmis einkenni íslenska skattkerfisins. Allir alþjóðlegir mælikvarðar á heildarskattbyrði sýna að skattbyrði hefur aukist mikið á Íslandi síðan 1995 og raunar á Ísland heimsmet í aukningu skattbyrðarinnar á tímabilinu frá 1995 til 2005. Þessi aukning heildarskattheimtu er nær eingöngu vegna aukinnar tekjuskattheimtu af einstaklingum og fjölskyldum, sem lagðist með mestum þunga á fólk úr lægri tekjuhópunum, lífeyrisþega og ungar barnafjölskyldur. Skattbyrði þess tíunda hluta þjóðarinnar sem hafði hæstar tekjur lækkaði hins vegar mikið, mest hjá þeim allra tekjuhæstu. Skattbyrði lágtekjufólks og meðaltekjufólks jókst vegna rýrnunar skattleysismarkanna og þrátt fyrir að álagningarhlutfall skatta hafi lækkað. OECD hefur staðfest þessa þróun með afdráttarlausum hætti í nýlegri skýrslu sinni um efnahagsmál á Íslandi árið 2005 (Economic Survey: Iceland). Ísland hefur mörg sérkenni í skattastefnu sinni og víkur með afgerandi hætti frá helstu skattkerfum vestrænna þjóða. Raunar virðist Ísland nú nálgast það að mega teljast skattaparadís fyrir fjárfesta og eigendur fyrirtækja um leið og skattbyrði þorra almennings er mikil, meðal annars vegna ofangreindrar aukningar á skattbyrði.

Crime and Criminal Policy in Iceland

Icelandic criminologists have classified Iceland as a country in which offences are rare. Despite an increase in crime during the 1990s, the incarceration figures are among the lowest in Europe. An overview of Icelandic research on crime and criminal justice over the past five years shows diversity in the topics chosen but also indicates that in certain areas there is no research to be found. The chief topics addressed in recent Icelandic work include the formation of boundaries between deviance and conformity, fear of crime, problems in the city centre, recidivism, the social status of inmates, youth crime and long-term trends in punishment for violent offences. This article traces how public discussion of criminal policy in recent years has centred on making punishments more severe. It will be shown that the demand for more severe punishment for drug offences is driven by utilitarian motives, whereas the arguments for punishment for sexual offences are based on the principle of retribution. At the end of the 20th century, attitudes toward crime and punishment were characterized by a consensus that is seen clearly in attitudes toward drug offences, whereas political divisions have recently emerged in discussion of sexual offences.

Soil erosion and land use policy in Iceland in relation to sheep grazing and government subsidies

A recent national erosion assessment programme reveals that soil erosion is more active in Iceland than is witnessed in other European countries. Most of the communal grazing areas in the central highlands are not suitable for grazing by sheep because of poor condition. Agricultural subsidies are a substantial proportion of Iceland’s national budget and the sheep farming is dependent on subsidies. Recently, a landmark agreement was made between sheep farmers and the government, where part of the production subsidies were tied to “quality management”, including sustainable land use. This agreement calls for rapid assessment of all grazing land in Iceland. These challenges have been met by the use of classification of satellite imagery and innovative methods in obtaining farmland boundaries. The subsidy agreement may have more importance for attaining sustainable land use in Iceland than most government initiatives to date. Financial incentives, such as linking subsidies to land condition and improvements, encourage a reduction of grazing pressure on marginal highland areas, but do not lead to exclusion of such grazing practices. We believe that Icelandic rangelands should be divided into two categories: land intended for use (farmland), and land that should be protected from grazing by national law.

Information Policy Disputes in Iceland

This article discusses information policy disputes in Iceland in the last years. Information policy in Iceland has three main strands. The first is the policy laid out by the government in 1995 and 1996, mainly defining the public sector as a buyer of information services. This policy gave the new information industries wide berth to make them better suited to create new jobs. Within that broad policy, individual ministries had scope to form their own policies. The Ministry for Education, Culture and Science has used the opportunity to subscribe nationally to a host of databases. The second strand is the Health Sector Database which sprang from a business idea and has been controversial ever since. The third strand is personal data protection and privacy, where Iceland follows Europe closely. Since the main field of dispute has been the formation of the Health Sector Database, a great part of the article discusses legal, ethical and social questions concerning that database.

Article

Gestur Guðmundsson: Wrestling with the devil. The social meaning of drugs and drug policy in Iceland During the 1990s Iceland has seen both an increased use of illegal substances and an intensified war against drugs. The accent in this war is on preventive measures implemented in a joint effort by the authorities and various voluntary organizations. Drawing on materials from interviews, public debate and historical research, the article discusses the social meaning of drugs in late modern Iceland in relation to world-views rooted in religion and premodern society. Secularization and the weakened position of the Church conceal the fact that drugs have largely replaced alcohol (which replaced sexuality, which replaced the witches and their pre-Lutheran world-views) as the representative of Evil and Sin. However, in Iceland there is a strong tradition which views “Wrestling with the Devil” as an intrinsic part of the transition to adulthood. The ongoing war against drugs may consolidate their evil role and thus also experimenting with drugs as a part of growing up. The dominant scientific contributions are criticized for failing to reflect upon these ambiguities and the deeper meaning of drugs and alcohol, thus reproducing problematic labelling and even contributing to modern witch-hunting.