Perceptions Of Police Officers Research Articles

An Exploratory Study of Police Officers' Perceptions of Health Risk, Work Stress, and Psychological Distress During the COVID-19 Outbreak in China.

BackgroundHow do the police officers perceive health risk, psychological distress, and work stress during the COVID-19 outbreak in China? This study explores the health risk perception, work stress, and psychological distress of police officers who worked at the front line to implement lockdown measures.Materials and MethodsWe conducted a large-scale field survey (N = 5,611) with police officers sample in the northwestern part of China from February 29 to March 7, 2020. Independent-sample T-test and ANOVA were used to analyze whether there are differences in health risk perception, work stress, and psychological distress between different groups. The regression analysis was employed to figure out the factors that influence police officers’ psychological distress.ResultsResults showed a gender difference in perceiving work stress among police officers. Also, police officers with chronic disease perceived higher health risks, more psychological distress, and higher work stress. Additionally, police officers above 45 years old significantly perceived higher health risks than young officers did. It also revealed that working hours contribute to police officers’ health risk perception, psychological distress, and work stress. Finally, our results highlight that age, working hours, chronic disease, health risk perception, and work stress significantly contribute to police officers’ psychological distress.ConclusionOur research verifies that there is a gender difference in perceiving work stress among police officers. Police officers with ongoing medical issues and above 45 years old suffer more during the COVID-19 outbreak in China. Our research suggests that the government should pay more attention to their physical health and mental health. The heavy workload containing the COVID-19 extends police officers’ working hours, causing higher health risks, work stress, and psychological distress. This study contributes to the psychological distress literature and provides a way forward to other countries struggling to contain the COVID-19.

Examining the impact of uniform manipulations on perceptions of police officers among Canadian university students

ABSTRACT It is important to understand how uniforms influence public perceptions of the police. The current study utilized a randomized design in which undergraduate students at a Canadian university were exposed to a series of photographs of officers wearing different uniform configurations (i.e., special duty vs. traditional uniform, dark vs. light shirt, dishevelled vs. tidy uniform, and uniform trousers with and without a stripe). Participants rated each officer on numerous scales including: (1) the officer’s personal qualities (e.g., helpfulness), (2) abilities or behaviors that the officer is likely to display (e.g., excessive force), and (3) the behavioral intentions of the participant toward the observed officer (e.g., willing to confide sensitive information to them). When controlling for general perceptions of police legitimacy, results suggest that, compared to the control conditions (i.e., normal operational uniform), introducing the uniform manipulations significantly influenced ratings on items related to community relations, professionalism, and officer safety. The current study speaks to the complicated relationship between the police appearing approachable and professional to the public, while also considering possible officer safety concerns associated with their uniform.

Predicting police officer reported compliance and willingness to cooperate with internal affairs units: application of the relational model of authority

ABSTRACT Internal accountability mechanisms, such as internal affair units, are an important aspect of misconduct and corruption prevention. Key to internal mechanisms is the fostering of compliant behaviour. Drawing on the Relational Model of Authority, this research investigated whether police officer perceptions of procedural justice and legitimacy, relevant to an internal affairs unit, influenced reported compliance and willingness to cooperate with the unit. An online survey was completed by 1195 police officers. Structural equation modelling revealed an indirect effect of perceived procedural justice on reported willingness to cooperate with the internal affairs unit via the subscales of legitimacy; perceived obligation to obey and perceived trust. The findings of this research provide important insight into theoretical understandings of compliance with authority in a policing context and will be of value to agencies seeking to improve compliance and cooperation with internal affair units.

Police Perceptions of Children at Drug-Related Crime Scenes

Drug use is on the rise in the United States, and many individuals who use drugs are also parents of children under 18. Although research has been conducted to explore police officer perceptions of drug use, no research to date has examined officers’ perceptions when children are present at drug-related calls. This is an important area to investigate because police perceptions have the ability to influence the way they behave. In the current study, 12 officers employed in Indiana completed a demographic questionnaire and a semistructured interview, which was analyzed using the consensual qualitative research (CQR) method. Results revealed that police perceptions of children present at drug-related crime scenes could be impacted by the age of the children and whether they believe the children had received negative messages about police. Additionally, findings revealed that officers tend to feel anger toward caregivers, believe that the children are being told that police are bad, indicated that their jobs are impacted by needing to find placement for the children, and want to have positive interactions with the children. On a personal level, officers reported coping with stress by not showing emotions, not bringing work home, and participating in hobbies. Officers also reported seeing addiction as a cycle. Limitations include lack of diversity of gender, race, and location of police officers; further, all but one officer interviewed had children. Findings highlight a need for further research to help shape policy surrounding training of and expectations for officers when children are present at drug-related crime scenes.

‘There’s A Certain Group of Cops that have their Own Vendetta’: Resident Perceptions of Notorious Police Officers and ‘Cop Clockin’ in the Inner-City

Abstract Many inner-city neighbourhoods across North America are disproportionately subject to heightened and aggressive policing strategies. Consequently, many inner-city residents have developed strategies to limit their encounters with police. Research examining police–community relationships has traditionally examined how residents perceive and respond to ‘the police’. However, this homogenizes and over-simplifies nuanced processes. Based upon 48 interviews with Toronto inner-city residents, we demonstrate how narratives about allegedly ‘notorious’ officers reveal that residents differentiate between individual officers and modify their behaviours accordingly. This process of officer differentiation—‘cop clockin’—results in strategic responses to specific officers as residents attempt to hinder the potential harms of interactions with ‘notorious cops’. Furthermore, officer complacency raises questions about police legitimacy and strengthening police–community relationships.

Восприятие сотрудника органов внутренних дел как фактор, влияющий на формирование имиджа полиции

This article raises the problem of the police image. The relevance is that in the modern world one of the main factors reflecting the importance of law enforcement agencies is the trust of citizens. A positive public perception of police and a positive image of this service contribute to the support of citizens and interaction with the community that generally affects the activity of this executive body. The image of the police reflects the positive or negative perception of the employees’ achievements, the success of the work performed, the individual image of each police officer, as well as what emotions the population feels when interacting directly with law enforcement agencies. The article is dedicated to the examination of the mechanisms and processes of perception, its influence on the formation of the police image. The analysis of the features of the police profession perception is made. The influence of the stereotyping mechanism on the formation of citizens’ perception of police officers is examined.Since the police ensure the safety of the population, the author analyses the influence of the perception of safety on shaping the citizens’ attitude to law enforcement agencies. When doing the research the author revealed the reasonable fact about subjectivity of perceived environmental factors affecting the level of safety and the perception of the police by society. One of the sections of this study addresses implications of the mechanism of stereotyping for the citizens’ perception of police officers.

Репрезентация негативных стереотипов восприятия полиции

The paper discusses the problem of negative atti-tude towards the police in Russian society. The question of the social significance of trust in law enforcement agencies is investigated. Modern trends of violation of trust in law enforcement agen-cies in Russian society are considered. It is proved that in conditions of distrust of the police, it is prob-lematic to achieve a high efficiency of law enforce-ment. In the analysis the reasons for distrust of the police in the civilian environment, it is proved that the representation of negative stereotypes of the perception of police officers is of paramount im-portance. The specifics of negative stereotypes re-lated to law enforcement agencies are investigated. Mechanisms of their dissemination in the civil envi-ronment are analyzed. The high importance of mod-ern media in spreading negative stereotypes of po-lice perception is proved.

Police Officer Perceptions of Non-consensual Dissemination of Intimate Images.

Non-consensual dissemination of intimate images (NCII) is a major concern in many countries. The increase in the number of NCII cases and awareness of its adverse effects on victims has raised public awareness, with many states enacting legal and non-legal measures to combat this new type of violence. Yet, despite recent legislation, there is a reason to suspect that the majority of NCII cases remain unreported. Thus, research is needed on law enforcement perceptions of victims and identification of victim-blaming attitudes and factors that might affect legal decision-making. The present study addressed this issue by focusing on Israeli police officer perceptions of NCII victims and offenders: 145 police officers and 160 students, who served as a control group, were presented with a scenario depicting an NCII offense in which the stolen intimate material was either self-generated by the victim (selfies) or stealth-taken by the victim’s ex-boyfriend. In both cases, the stolen images were disseminated by the ex-boyfriend without the victim’s permission. The findings indicated victim-blaming attitudes toward NCII victims within law enforcement as well as an effect of the source of stolen images. Although officers perceived NCII as criminal and the offender as highly culpable and punishable, they engaged in victim-blaming. This was especially the case for the self-taken scenario, which elicited negative feelings and less empathy toward the victim. The relevance of emotions in legal contexts is emphasized in light of their contribution to the participants’ punitive judgments. Victim-blaming in NCII offenses and its implications are discussed, and suggestions are made for how to reduce negative and victim-blaming attitudes among law enforcement.

When Police Smile: A Two Sample Test of the Effects of Facial Expressions on Perceptions of Police

Police officers exist at the center of much perceptual scrutiny. The present research contributes to the police perception literature by empirically evaluating the effects of facial expressions on perceptions of police officers. Using an experimental methodology, participants were exposed to images of police officers exhibiting either a neutral facial expression or a smile, and then asked to rate them on several important outcomes, including aggressiveness, approachability, friendliness, respectfulness, accountability (Study I; N = 92), and competency (Study II; N = 98). The analyses reveal that smiling unilaterally enhances perceptions of police officers: when exhibiting a smile, officers are perceived as less aggressive and more approachable, friendly, respectful, accountable, and competent. These results are strong and consistent across two samples of diverse participants from a public university and Amazon’s Mechanical Turk. The theoretical and practical implications of these results are discussed with respect to both perceptions of police and philosophies of police more broadly.

Police Unions and the Implementation of Body-Worn Cameras in a Small Island Developing State: The Case of the Trinidad and Tobago Police Service

AbstractWithin the past two decades, body-worn cameras (BWCs) have developed as an evidentiary tool to determine the outcomes of contentious police–citizen contacts as well as a method of enhancing the accountability of both groups. While there have been numerous studies conducted on BWCs, the research has focused primarily on police officer perceptions and follow-up analyses of their usage subsequent to implementation and/or during controlled, randomized trials. However, there is a dearth of academic literature on police union members’ perceptions of BWC technology prior to implementation within their departments. This article contributes to the body of literature on BWCs by providing an analysis of data on the attitudes and perceptions towards the implementation of BWC technology into the Trinidad and Tobago Police Service that were collected from Central Committee representatives of the Trinidad and Tobago Police Service Social and Welfare Association, the representative body for police officers of the Trinidad and Tobago Police Service. The findings indicate that the respondents were generally amenable to the introduction and implementation of BWCs into the Trinidad and Tobago Police Service; however, this is premised on a phased implementation preceded by a controlled trial of the BWCs, as well as the creation of internal policies prior to implementation.

Subjective interpretation of "objective" video evidence: Perceptions of male versus female police officers' use-of-force.

The police face great scrutiny after highly publicized instances of lethal force. Dash-camera footage ostensibly provides "objective" evidence of whether the force was excessive. We tested whether participants interpreted the same "objective" video of an officer exerting force differently based on the officer's gender and race. We predicted that when (a) a male (vs. female) officer used force and (b) a Black (vs. White) officer used force, participants would endorse more internal and less external explanations for their use-of-force, which would be associated with less trust in and perceived effectiveness of the officer. We randomly assigned Amazon's Mechanical Turk workers (N = 452; 53% female, 80% White) to (a) see a segment of a police-civilian interaction video that either included or did not include exertion of force, and to believe that the officer was (b) male versus female, and (c) Black versus White. They reported their trust in the officer and perceptions of the officer's effectiveness, and their degree of agreement with external and internal attributions for the officer's behavior. When officers used force, people trusted officers less (d = 1.13) and perceived them to be less effective (d = .78) relative to when they did not. Despite all participants viewing the same interaction, people who thought they saw a male (vs. female) officer perceived his use-of-force to be driven more by internal traits, such as being aggressive and emotionally reactive, and less by the external situation, which was associated with decreased trust and perceived effectiveness. In contrast, people perceived female (vs. male) officers' force to be driven more by external aspects of the dangerous situation, which was associated with increased trust and perceived effectiveness. This pattern did not depend on the officers' race or participants' gender. This constitutes a rare instance of women benefiting from violating gender stereotypes in the workplace because people assumed her counterstereotypical behavior was more justified by the situation and less about her being an aggressive and emotionally reactive person. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Do photos of police-civilian interactions influence public opinion about the police? A multimethod test of media effects

To test whether exposure to news images depicting law enforcement affects public attitudes toward the police. Participants drawn from a national online panel were randomly assigned to view one of three pictures that depicted a range of hostile to friendly police-civilian interactions (compared to a control group who saw no pictures). Dependent variables were perceptions of police officers’ effectiveness, misconduct, and bias. Moderating variables were respondents’ experiential, ideological, or demographic characteristics. As a follow-up to the results of the experiment, regression analyses were employed to explore other factors that may influence perceptions of police or interact with the media effects. Image exposure did not directly affect any dimension of attitudes toward the police, but there was one significant moderation effect. Respondents who had been recently stopped by an officer and saw a picture of a friendly interaction between officers and a civilian perceived more frequent police misconduct than respondents in the same experimental condition who were not recently stopped. Routine media consumption was significantly related to perceptions of police in the non-experimental analysis. Findings indicate that brief exposure to static images of law enforcement disseminated by the media does not independently affect people’s opinions about the performance of police in society. Rather, people’s global opinions about the police are shaped by their own beliefs, prior experiences with officers, and cumulative, self-selected media consumption.

Ethnocultural empathy and diversity training: the case of campus policing

ABSTRACT The purpose of this study was to examine diversity training and police service differences on levels of ethnocultural empathy among Florida’s public university police officers. Ethnocultural empathy is essential for cultural competence, and cultural competence is vital for campus police officers employed at public universities in Florida. Perceptions of police officers among various minority groups and the relationships officers have with their members have long been strained by a myriad of social, political, and economic issues. During the last decade, minority enrollment at Florida’s public universities experienced double-digit growth. As a result, campus police administrators must ensure the police officers they employ maintain the cultural competence needed to promote positive relationships within the diverse academic communities they serve. Believed to be the first study of its kind, it provides an opportunity for important discourse in campus policing and beyond. Of particular value and importance is the sole significant finding that white officers are more likely to have lower levels of ethnocultural empathy compared to non-white officers.

Guns, Gloves, and Tasers: Perceptions of Police Officers and Their Use of Weapon as a Function of Race and Gender

The purpose of the present studies was to examine how officer characteristics influenced mock jurors’ judgments in a police use of force case. In study 1 (N = 356), we examined officer race, suspect race, and weapon type (gun vs. taser vs. assault gloves), and in study 2 (N = 352) we examined officer gender, weapon type, and whether the officer was on or off duty. In both studies, participants read a case summary concerning police use of force where the suspect/victim died from his injuries. In study 1, mock jurors were more likely to vote guilty when the officer was White as well as when a gun was used. The officer was perceived most favorably when he was Black and a taser or assault gloves were used compared to a gun. Mock jurors’ attitudes toward the police also were examined and were found to be related to mock jurors’ guilt ratings and perceptions of the officer. In study 2, mock jurors were more likely to vote guilty for the defendant when the officer was male, off duty, and the weapon used was a gun. Mock jurors also viewed the police officer more negatively when he was off duty as well as when a gun was used. Overall, this study is the first to our knowledge to systematically vary both officer characteristics and suspect/victim characteristics and the results suggest that both have the capacity to influence how use of force cases are perceived by potential jurors.

Supplemental Material for Subjective Interpretation of “Objective” Video Evidence: Perceptions of Male Versus Female Police Officers’ Use-of-Force

Supplemental Material for Subjective Interpretation of “Objective” Video Evidence: Perceptions of Male Versus Female Police Officers’ Use-of-Force

Improving police integrity in Uganda: Impact assessment of the police accountability and reform project

AbstractUganda and in particular the Ugandan police are perceived as highly corrupt. To address the integrity of police officers, an intervention called the Police Accountability and Reform Project (PARP) was implemented in selected police districts between 2010 and early 2013. This paper studies the impact of PARP for a sample of 600 police officers who were interviewed about police integrity by means of 12 hypothetical vignette cases depicting context‐specific, undesirable behavior of varying degrees of severity. The assessments of the cases by the police officers are analyzed using propensity score matching, inverse probability weighting, and seemingly unrelated regression techniques. We show that the self‐selection of police officers into the program is unlikely to drive the results. The results suggest that officers participating in PARP activities (1) judge the presented cases of misconduct more severely, (2) are more inclined to report misconduct, and (3) also expect their colleagues to judge misbehavior at the police level more critically although the latter two coefficient estimates are smaller in size. This suggests that PARP activities have affected the perception of police officers but only encouraged them moderately to actually take action against bad practices.

Police Body-Worn Cameras: Development of the Perceived Intensity of Monitoring Scale

Body-worn cameras (BWCs) are the latest and perhaps most tangible answer to complex social questions regarding the use of force, state legitimacy, and the proper role of police in a liberal democracy. How do officers experience heightened monitoring? This article pursues two objectives via two studies. In the first study, we establish a valid and reliable scale to measure police officer perceptions of the risks posed to them by the recording and distribution of BWC footage, conceptualized as Perceived Intensity of Monitoring (PIM). Based on a survey of 617 police officers, we evaluate an 11-item questionnaire and assess internal consistency and construct validity, perform exploratory factor analysis, and derive a PIM Scale composed of three factors measuring officer perceptions of discretion, disapproval, and distribution effects. In the second study, we evaluate the PIM Scale’s ability to predict officer emotional exhaustion, discriminating between BWC and non-BWC equipped officers. This study contributes to evolving work in BWC research by developing a useful measure for police administrators and practitioners charged with making decisions related to BWC implementation and policy. Further, the PIM Scale is applicable across professions other than policing, as surveillant workplace monitoring and technologies of accountability continue to expand to other contexts.

Perceptions of Law Enforcement Towards Juvenile Offenders [Clark Atlanta University

In the most recent statistics, the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJPD, 2017) recorded that in 2016 law enforcement agencies in the U.S made an estimated 856,130 arrests of persons under age 18. The topic of juvenile offenders has been a controversial debate for several years. Many argue that juveniles are not as fully developed mentally as adults and their crimes are generated from a youth’s mentality. This qualitative study explores the perceptions of juveniles by police officers. The purpose is to identify whether age, or the crime committed, and the outcome of that crime influences their perceptions. Additionally, exploring the police officers’ beliefs regarding the disciplinary actions for juveniles is an important consideration because it may influence their first contact treatment of the juvenile offender. The research questions that lead this study are: What are the perceptions of police officers about the disciplinary punishments for juvenile offenders? Purposeful sampling was used for the study. Participants were eligible if they were (1) worked as law enforcement for a minimum of 5 years, and (2) worked with juvenile offenders directly. A sample of 5 law enforcement officers, considered key informants, who worked with juvenile offenders, participated in this study. Data analyses was conducted with the Atlas Ti. Validation strategies such as member checking, rich thick descriptions, and reflexivity were used. Results of the overall themes indicated that most favor having early intervention and prevention programs for juveniles as well as rehabilitation instead of incarceration. Results should aid juvenile justice officials and use the perspectives inform interventions to prevent recidivism.

Experiences and Perceptions of Police Officers Concerning Their Interactions With People With Serious Mental Disorders for Compulsory Treatment.

Background: In Portuguese law, police officers are the link between security and the treatment of people with serious mental disorders who require compulsory admission. The perceptions of police officers are in part based on their individual characteristics, and may influence their capability in managing patients they are transporting. However, little is known about police officers experience of this process.Methods: In-depth semi-structured interviews explored the experiences and per- ceptions of police officers from Porto Police Department in Portugal. All interviews were audio recorded, transcribed and analyzed through thematic analysis.Results: Ten police officers agreed to take part in this study. The interviewed police officers consisted of nine men and one woman, had an average length service of 22.6 years and all had more than 10 years of service. The interviews highlighted that the activity of the police under the Mental Health Law is shaped by whether the person who they are transporting has a mental health disorder and requires psychiatric admission. The police officers reportedly adjusted their behavior to give patients more attention, comfort and empathy. However, they describe these interactions as one of the most time consuming and challenging activities for the police. Importantly, they acknowledged family members as crucial for police officers to be able to gain direct access to patients and knowledge about them. Police officers showed to perceive people with mental illness as unpredictable, dangerous and without discernment, and identified some aspects of the process that could be improved, such as hospital admission waiting times. Police officers felt they required more skilled support to deal with unwell patients.Conclusions: This study highlights the perceptions and experiences of police officers about the process of compulsory admission, and identifies areas of unmet needs. These findings help to raise awareness of their needs, improving this process, and ensuring a more humane and effective approach.

Police vehicles as symbols of legitimacy

To experimentally evaluate the effects of police vehicle types and esthetics on participants’ perceptions of police officers. Using participant data (N = 307) from the Police Officer Perception Project (Simpson 2017), I experimentally assess the effects of police vehicles on perceptions of police officers. Specifically, I evaluate the impact of presenting officers in marked police vehicles (black and white versus white and blue), unmarked police vehicles, and unrelated (or civilian) police vehicles on perceptions of them as aggressive, approachable, friendly, respectful, and accountable. Police officers are perceived differently when occupying different types and colors of police vehicles. For example, officers are generally perceived more favorably when occupying marked police vehicles than when occupying non-marked police vehicles. When occupying marked police vehicles, officers are generally perceived more favorably when such vehicles have a black and white color scheme than a white and blue color scheme. Police vehicle types and esthetics impact perceptions of police officers in significant and meaningful ways. Like uniforms, police vehicles can be important symbols of legitimacy which exude presence and nonverbally communicate philosophies and intentions to the public. Police departments may tailor the perceived intentions of their motorized patrols by strategically manipulating the appearance of their vehicles.