Polarization Effects Research Articles

When Disagreement Becomes Uncivil on Social Media: The Role of Passive Receiving and Active Expression of Incivility in Influencing Political Polarization

Exposure to cross-cutting viewpoints may not always play the deliberative role it is supposed to. This study uses both panel survey and social media data to examine how disagreement can trigger incivility, including exposure to and expression of incivility, and further elicit emotions and influence polarization. Results from the two-wave panel survey indicate that cross-cutting exposure has a polarizing effect first through promoting exposure to uncivil messages and expression of uncivil opinions, then through negative emotions. Notably, cross-cutting exposure can indirectly reduce polarization by first encouraging expression of uncivil opinions and then eliciting positive emotions, highlighting the importance of active expression. Analysis of data from the Hong Kong-based discussion forum HKDisc demonstrates that cross-cutting exposure is positively related to exposure to uncivil messages, and exposure to and expression of incivility predict polarization regardless of whether positive or negative emotions are detected in the uncivil content. This study provides empirical evidence of the effects of cross-cutting exposure and incivility on polarization at the individual and collective levels.

Rationally designed photothermal-pyroelectric Fe0.9Ni0.1S2/ZnSnO3 Z-scheme heterojunction for promoting electrical charge polarization towards optimized photocatalytic H2 evolution and intermolecular N-N coupling reaction

Developing a photocatalytic composite system that can couple hydrogen (H2) evolution and benzylamine (BA) oxidation is a challenging task, especially while avoiding sacrificial agents and value-added chemicals. Here, a practical approach is reported to develop a photothermal-pyroelectric-Fe0.9Ni0.1S2/ZnSnO3 photocatalytic system with core–shell and Z-scheme heterostructure via hydrothermal and annealing methods. Although Fe0.9Ni0.1S2 nanoparticles (NPs) could convert most of near-infrared (NIR) light energy into heat energy to drive the pyroelectric effect of ZnSnO3, it also results in temperature fluctuations (ΔT) in the system, causing natural polarization and thermoelectric effects under the condensed water circulation. As a result, the as-designed Fe0.9Ni0.1S2/ZnSnO3-2 composites could yield up to 7.194 mmol g-1h−1 with exceptional photocatalytic H2 evolution under simulated sunlight. This result is 5.41 and 4.92-fold those of Fe0.9Ni0.1S2 and ZnSnO3, respectively, with 16.66 % apparent quantum yield (AQY) under 365 nm monochromatic light. At the same time, the composites could also oxidize BA and yield up to 6.640 mmol g-1h-1n-benzylidene benzylamine (NBBA) with a 90.2 % selectivity. Due to the synergistic effect of Z-scheme’s built-in electric field and photothermal-pyroelectric of Fe0.9Ni0.1S2/ZnSnO3, the surface charges released on them could direct the charge transfer pathways and restrain their recombination with accelerated electron transfer kinetics, thus extending the carrier lifetime. This work offers a new perspective for designing electrical charge polarized by the photothermal-pyroelectric effect, which can enhance H2 evolution and BA oxidation concurrently.

Analysis and study of digital economy level measurement index

PurposeThis study aims to assess the level of development of the digital economy by constructing a comprehensive measurement system. It explores regional differences within China’s digital economy, highlighting the varying degrees of digital infrastructure, industrialization, governance and innovation capabilities across provinces.Design/methodology/approachA multidimensional analytical framework including digital infrastructure, industrialization, digitization, governance and innovation was developed. Entropy methods were used to calculate the weights of each dimension. The coupled coordination degree model and the Tobit model with random effects panel are applied to analyze the current situation, discrepancies and influencing factors.FindingsThis study reveals significant regional differences in the development of China’s digital economy, characterized by a pattern of “strong in the east, weak in the west; high in the south, low in the north.” This geographical imbalance exacerbates the “polarization effect” and the “siphon effect,” where resources and growth tend to concentrate in already developed areas, further intensifying regional inequalities. The development of the digital economy is driven by principles of innovation, coordination and sharing, which facilitate the creation and dissemination of new technologies and collaboration across different sectors. However, this progress is also constrained by considerations of environmental sustainability (green) and economic openness.Originality/valueThis paper contributes to the body of knowledge by providing a novel multidimensional measurement system for the level of digital economy development. The unique application of the coupled coordination degree model and Tobit model to analyze regional differences and influencing factors provides insights into the dynamics of China’s digital economy.

Electromigration in Cu–Cu joints: Measurement of activation energy and polarity effect

Electromigration (EM) has been a pivotal reliability challenge for interconnects, but there are only few studies on EM in Cu–Cu joints. In this work, accelerated EM tests for the Cu–Cu joints were conducted at three temperatures (150 °C, 179 °C, and 208 °C) and the temperature-dependent failures were discussed. The polarity effect of the grain growth behaviors at the bonding interfaces was observed at the opposite electron flows, which may be attributed to the difference in EM-build-up stress conditions and the divergence in atomic fluxes. Moreover, the activation energy (Ea) extrapolated from the three EM temperatures was derived as 0.9 eV. As compared to the solder joints with same dimensions, the Cu–Cu joints possess more than ten times of time-to-failures (TTFs) under the same EM condition.

Political polarization and corruption: A theoretical and empirical review

Notwithstanding the considerable scholarly and public attention that political polarization and corruption have attracted in recent years and the important mechanisms through which the former may influence the latter, research in this area remains limited and inconclusive. This article offers a comprehensive theoretical and empirical synthesis of the current state of research in this domain. It finds that a large fraction of the apparent contradictions can be attributed to the conceptual inconsistencies and ambiguity surrounding political polarization. The types of polarization that have an inherently hostile and uncivil element (usually referred to as affective or pernicious polarization) undermine democratic accountability, which leads to more corruption. The role of ideological polarization among parties and the general population is more complex: it may boost accountability and decrease corruption but can also contribute to the aforementioned harmful forms of polarization and enhance the role of partisan bias in public opinion formation, thereby increasing corruption. The overall effect of ideological polarization on corruption may depend on the nature and the degree of the former, as well as on mitigating contextual factors. The two may create a vicious circle as corruption also increases political polarization via various channels.

Photo‐Curable Fluorinated High‐k Polyimide Dielectrics by Polar Side Substitution Effect for Low‐Voltage Operating Flexible Printed Electronics

AbstractPolyimide‐based dielectric films are widely used in various thin film devices including organic field‐effect transistors (OFETs) owing to their promising thermal/chemical stability, mechanical flexibility, and insulating properties. On the other hand, considerable attention is paid to lowering the process temperature to allow coating on plastic substrates because high‐temperature annealing (≈200 °C) is usually required to convert precursors to polyimide films with those excellent properties. In addition, polyimide‐based dielectric films have low dielectric constants (k) (<4). Therefore, modifying the k properties of polyimide is a critical issue for applications as an insulating thin film for practical transistors. This paper reports a new type of polyimide‐based gate dielectric comprising methacryloyl moiety (PI‐MA) as a side chain for photo‐pattern/processability and high‐k properties. This study shows that the photocured PI‐MA thin films show excellent insulating properties (leakage current densities < 10−8 A cm⁻2 at 4 MV cm⁻1) and high‐k properties (≈8) even without a post‐annealing process. Finally, the use of PI‐MA in printed field‐effect transistors results in high performance with low‐voltage operation (within 5 V) and integrated logic‐gate devices (NOT, NAND, and NOR gates).

Triggering Asymmetric Layer Displacement Polarization and Redox Dual-Sites Activation by Inside-Out Anion Substitution for Efficient CO2 Photoreduction.

Sluggish bulk charge transfer and barren catalytic sites severely hinder the CO2 photoreduction process. Seeking strategies for accelerating charge dynamics and activating reduction and oxidation sites synchronously presents a huge challenge. Herein, an inside-out chlorine (Cl) ions substitution strategy on the layered polar Bi4O5Br2 is proposed for achieving layer structure-dependent polarization effect and redox dual-sites activation. Cl ions in the bulk phase shrink the halogen layer interspace by 8‰, triggering asymmetric [Bi4O5]2+ layer displacement polarization, prolonging the average photocharge lifetime to 201.8ps. Meanwhile, surface substituted Cl ions enhance the electron-donating capability of neighboring Bi atoms, activating the intrinsic Bi reduction sites, and increasing H2O molecule adsorption on nearby intrinsic O oxidation site (cal. by 0.105eV), also self-donating as an alien oxidation site. Besides, Cl upshifts the p-band center closer to the Fermi level, facilitating the reactant adsorption. Therefore, the energy barrier for CO2 activation and rate-limiting *COOH intermediate formation steps are significantly decreased. Without cocatalysts and sacrificial reagents, inside-out Cl-substituted Bi4O5Br2 delivers a remarkable CO2-to-CO photoreduction rate of 50.18µmol g-1 h-1, being one of the state-of-the-art catalysts. This finding offers insights into exploiting polarization at the molecular-level and enhances understanding of catalytic site activation.

Understanding ultrafast rechargeable Al/graphite battery by visualizing phase separation

Al/graphite batteries (ABs) using ionic liquid electrolytes exhibit exceptionally fast charging and cycling stability. However, the mechanisms underlying their high rate capabilities remains elusive. In this study, in situ optical microscopy is employed to investigate the intercalation dynamics of single-flake graphite in ABs. Observations reveal that surface reaction limitations, rather than AlCl4− mass transfer, primarily govern performance in the graphite cathode. During charging under varying current densities, the ABs display distinct phase separation behaviour with an intercalation wave morphology, indicating that surface reactions restrict the intercalation process. This finding explains the ultrafast recharge capability of ABs, where active sites in graphite become nearly fully intercalated with AlCl4− at high current densities. Additionally, slight rate performance loss occurs due to increasing ohmic and charge transfer polarisation (ηohm and ηct) at higher current densities. To address this limitation, we propose increasing the cut-off voltage as a straightforward and effective method to mitigate these polarization effects. This study offers valuable insights into the electrochemical behaviour of rechargeable secondary ion batteries by visualising their phase separation.

Effect of chemical bond polarity on wafer and cleavage surface oxidation for GaAs, GaSb, InAs and InSb single crystals

Rapid development of III–V semiconductor device technologies and broadening of device applications are hindered by the high density of surface states produced in those materials by intrinsic complex oxides and surface contaminations. Surface oxides acting as non-radiating recombination centers produce a number of surface levels in the band gap. Oxidation mechanisms depend on the chemical composition of a specific III–V semiconductor compound because surface reactivities differ between materials. The effect of chemical bond polarity on surface oxidation processes in single crystal III–V semiconductor wafers is currently an important research topic. In this work, surface-sensitive XPS method has been used for studying oxidation regularities in GaAs, InAs, GaSb and InSb single crystals undergoing natural atmospheric oxidation and subjected chemical-mechanical polishing. A method of assessing oxidation levels based on chemical shifts of XPS spectral features has been developed. Oxidation level has been shown to depend on chemical bond ionicity degree, the latter being evaluated using the Sanderson and Phillips models. A decrease in surface oxidation level with an increase in bond ionicity degree has been observed for (110) single crystal wafer cleavage surfaces and for (100) single crystal wafer surfaces after single crystal slicing and chemical-mechanical polishing. We show that surface oxidation level increases in the InAs–GaAs–InSb–GaSb sequence, from arsenides to antimonides.

Vacuum Polarization in the Point Impurity Background

The vacuum polarization effect of a massive scalar field φ(x) near the point δ-like source is considered. The corresponding interaction is introduced within a technique of self-adjoint extension of the Laplace operator. This method has been widely discussed within the framework of quantum mechanics. We propose to use it to investigate vacuum field effects. This approach allows computing the renormalized Hadamard function and the renormalized vacuum energy density hT00(x)iren for massive real scalar field with minimal curvature coupling. The dependence of the vacuum polarization effect upon the fields’s mass is analyzed.

Extracting the femtometer structure of strange baryons using the vacuum polarization effect

One of the fundamental goals of particle physics is to gain a microscopic understanding of the strong interaction. Electromagnetic form factors quantify the structure of hadrons in terms of charge and magnetization distributions. While the nucleon structure has been investigated extensively, data on hyperons are still scarce. It has recently been demonstrated that electron-positron annihilations into hyperon-antihyperon pairs provide a powerful tool to investigate their inner structure. We present a method useful for hyperon-antihyperon pairs of different types which exploits the cross section enhancement due to the effect of vacuum polarization at the J/ψ resonance. Using the 10 billion J/ψ events collected with the BESIII detector, this allows a precise determination of the hyperon structure function. The result is essentially a precise snapshot of the Λ¯Σ0(ΛΣ¯0)\\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \\usepackage{amsmath} \\usepackage{wasysym} \\usepackage{amsfonts} \\usepackage{amssymb} \\usepackage{amsbsy} \\usepackage{mathrsfs} \\usepackage{upgreek} \\setlength{\\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \\begin{document}$$\\bar{\\Lambda }{\\Sigma }^{0}\\,(\\Lambda {\\bar{\\Sigma }}^{0})$$\\end{document} transition process, encoded in the transition form factor ratio and phase. Their values are measured to be R = 0.860 ± 0.029(stat.) ± 0.015(syst.), ΔΦΛ¯Σ0=(1.011±0.094(stat.)±0.010(syst.))rad\\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \\usepackage{amsmath} \\usepackage{wasysym} \\usepackage{amsfonts} \\usepackage{amssymb} \\usepackage{amsbsy} \\usepackage{mathrsfs} \\usepackage{upgreek} \\setlength{\\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \\begin{document}$$\\Delta {\\Phi }_{\\bar{\\Lambda }{\\Sigma }^{0}}=(1.011\\pm 0.094({{\\rm{stat.}}})\\pm 0.010({{\\rm{syst.}}}))\\,{{\\rm{r}}}ad$$\\end{document} and ΔΦΛΣ¯0=(2.128±0.094(stat.)±0.010(syst.))rad\\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \\usepackage{amsmath} \\usepackage{wasysym} \\usepackage{amsfonts} \\usepackage{amssymb} \\usepackage{amsbsy} \\usepackage{mathrsfs} \\usepackage{upgreek} \\setlength{\\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \\begin{document}$$\\Delta {\\Phi }_{\\Lambda {\\bar{\\Sigma }}^{0}}=(2.128\\pm 0.094({{\\rm{stat.}}})\\pm 0.010({{\\rm{syst.}}}))\\,{{\\rm{r}}}ad$$\\end{document}. Furthermore, charge-parity (CP) breaking is investigated in this reaction and found to be consistent with CP symmetry.

Bi2O2.33/Bi4O5I2-heterojunction photocatalysts for adsorption and visible light-driven degradation of pharmaceutical pollutants

This study introduces the innovative Bi4O5I2/Bi2O2.33 heterojunction for diclofenac (DF) degradation. Pharmaceutical pollutants, especially DF, pose significant threats to water sources, necessitating efficient treatment methods. Bi2O2.33, renowned for its unique ferromagnetic properties, emerges as a promising photocatalyst for pollutant degradation. Bi4O5I2, known for strong visible light absorption and stability, holds potential for environmental applications. Interestingly, the inclusion of titanium dioxide (TiO2) in the composite catalysts significantly influences their observed ferromagnetic properties, as revealed by Electron Paramagnetic Resonance (EPR) spectroscopy, by influencing the interactions within the Bi4O5I2/Bi2O2.33 heterojunction and influencing its structure, morphology, and spin behavior. This interaction results in enhanced EPR and Ferromagnetic Resonance (FMR) signals, indicating intriguing spin interactions, polarization effects, charge transfers, surface dynamics, and stabilized magnetic domains. While the enhanced ferromagnetism holds promise for efficient charge separation and potential applications in environmental remediation, the expected boost in visible light-driven activity was not fully realized. This limitation is attributed to TiO2 inherent inability to directly absorb visible light, hindering its utilization for enhanced photocatalysis within the heterojunction. Nevertheless, these findings elucidate the multifaceted role of TiO2 in modulating the magnetic properties of these catalysts, offering valuable insights for future advancements in the design of advanced photocatalysts for effective environmental remediation.

Electron Spin Polarization and Memory Effect in Supramolecular Gel Exclusively From Achiral Building Blocks.

Chirality has been identified as a crucial component in achieving high spin selectivity in organic polymers and π-conjugated molecules. In particular, chiral polymers and supramolecular structures have emerged as promising candidates for spin filtering due to the chirality-induced spin selectivity (CISS) effect. However, the CISS effect in supramolecular systems has not been extensively investigated, despite its potential for applications in spintronics. In this work, for the first time, the potential applications of the CISS effect in supramolecular gel materials and shed light on its untapped possibilities have been successfully explored. The ability of supramolecular gel exclusively made from achiral building blocks to selectively filter electron's spin through the symmetry breaking has been demonstrated. Furthermore, this study shows that their spin filtering efficacy can be improved by using chiral solvents. More importantly, the CISS effect has been employed to explore a novel phenomenon referred to as the "spin memory effect", where the desired spin information is preserved by retaining the helicity even in the absence of the chiral solvent. These findings underscore the immense potential for spintronics applications that rely solely on achiral components, thereby paving the way for new possibilities in device design and functionality.

The Impact of Bilateral Cerebellar Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation on Balance Control in Healthy Young Adults.

Cerebellar transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) has been shown to influence movement functions, but little is known about the specific effects of stimulation polarity on balance control. This study investigated the impact of bilateral cerebellar tDCS on balance functions as a function of stimulation polarity. In this randomized, controlled trial, thirty-nine healthy young adults were assigned to one of three groups: right anodal/left cathodal cerebellar stimulation (AC group), right cathodal/left anodal cerebellar stimulation (CA group), and a control sham group. Each participant underwent a daily 30-minute session of tDCS at 2mA for one week. Balance function was assessed pre- and post-intervention and the data were analyzed using generalized estimating equations. The CA group exhibited a significant reduction in sway area when standing on the left leg and on both stable and unstable surfaces with eyes open, compared to both the AC and sham groups. However, there were no significant differences among the groups in terms of sway length, anteroposterior velocity, or mediolateral velocity. Our results indicate the polarity-dependent effects of bilateral cerebellar tDCS on balance functions, with enhanced stability observed only following cathodal tDCS over the right cerebellum paired with anodal tDCS over the left cerebellum. This polarity-specific modulation may have implications for developing cerebellar neuromodulation interventions for movement disorders.

Effect of solvent polarity on yield extract, antioxidant and antibacterial activities of phytochemicals from Andrographis paniculata leaves

ABSTRACT In this study, the impact of solvent polarity on the extraction yield, antibacterial activity and antioxidant characteristics of phytochemical compounds derived from Andrographis paniculata leaves was investigated. The simplicia of A. paniculata was macerated in different organic solvents with raising polarity (n-Hexane, ethyl acetate, dichloromethane, ethanol, methanol, methanol–water) at room temperature for 24 h. Preliminary screening revealed that the yield extract, phytochemical composition, antibacterial activity and antioxidant properties were influenced by the polarity of the solvent used for extraction. The optimum yield extract was obtained using a methanol–water solvent (50:50, v/v) of 15.46%. The most active antibacterial activity against biofilm-forming bacteria (Pseudomonas aeruginosa) was obtained using ethyl acetate and dichloromethane with a minimum inhibition concentration (MIC) value of 312.5 µg mL−1. Meanwhile, the antioxidant properties of A. paniculata leaf extract with all solvents shows a very weak level. The antibacterial activity and antioxidant properties of A. paniculata leaf extracts are related to the phytochemical content in the extract. This result is evident in the extract with ethyl acetate solvents with the highest total phenolic and flavonoid values. However, GC-MS analysis of A. paniculata extract revealed 20 components, with Supraene having the greatest compounds.

Conceptual model of electrostatic non-ionizing air filter

Abstract Many infectious diseases such as SARS-CoV-2, rhinovirus, adenovirus, and influenza are transmitted through small respiratory droplets and various filtration systems are used to reduce the risk of airborne infection. Here, we develop a conceptual model of a filter, which is based on the electrostatic deposition of air droplets potentially containing pathogens. Within the model, we explore the effect of polarization of neutral spherical droplets moving in an air flow past cylindrical electrodes. The strength of electric field they produce is low enough to eliminate corona discharge and minimize air ionization, but high enough to capture the droplets. Based on the proposed model, we calculate the filtration efficiency in a quasi-continuous approximation. Also, we conduct numerical simulations of the deposition of respiratory droplets on a compact periodic array of cylindrical electrodes located at the nodes of a square lattice. The droplets with a radius of 10-20 μm pose the greatest threat in spreading the respiratory infections, and as we demonstrate, the proposed system is very effective in capturing droplets of this size, specifically, for a filter element with a width of about 5 mm, the filtration efficiency exceeds 90%.

Mechanisms of enhanced performance in Zr4+/Ta5+ codoped rutile-TiO2 ceramics via broadband dielectric spectroscopy.

Aliovalent dopant codoped rutile-TiO2 materials have garnered attention due to their excellent performance properties, characterized by low loss tangent (tanδ), high dielectric permittivity (ε'), and stable ε' over a broad temperature range. This performance is primarily due to the electron-pinned defect-dipoles (EPDDs) of the complex defects [Formula: see text]Ti3+-[Formula: see text]Ti3+BTi. Notably, the excellent dielectric properties in ZrxTa2.5%Ti0.975-xO2 (Zr-TTO) ceramics can be achieved using the traditional mixed oxide method without the EPDDs, due to the absence of A3+ (acceptor doping ions). Instead, the existence of localized free electrons and oxygen vacancies ([Formula: see text]) in Zr-TTO structures, due to doping ions and the sintering process, was confirmed by X-ray photoelectron and Raman spectroscopies. These ceramics exhibited ε'~ 2 × 104 and tanδ < 0.03 at 1kHz and 25°C in the 2.5-10%Zr-TTO samples. Moreover, all ceramics demonstrated a maximum ε' change (∆ε') of less than ±15% over the temperature range suitable for X7R and X8R type ceramic capacitors. Significantly, the change in ε' related to relative humility was calculated to be less than ±0.5% over the range of 50-95% RH, indicating the environmental stability of the dielectric properties, which is essential for capacitor applications. Investigations suggested that at least four mechanisms contributed to this system: the intrinsic effect of ionic polarization, Ti4+ · e- -[Formula: see text]- Ti4+ · e- and Ti4+ · e- - [Formula: see text] defects, interfacial polarization at insulating grain boundaries, and non-Ohmic contact between the surface sample and the metal electrode.

Specific Heat of Organic Compounds and Polarization Effect

Specific Heat of Organic Compounds and Polarization Effect

A new semi-analytic model for Stern-layer polarization in pore throats

SUMMARY To explain induced polarization, membrane polarization is often referred to as a relevant process taking place in granular media – particularly, when narrow pore throats are present. This polarization effect is based on the membrane-like behaviour of pore throats caused by the presence of an usually negative charge on the pore surface, that influences charge transport in the pore fluid. Existing analytical, 1D models describe the pore system as a series of cylindrical pores with different radii and lengths. The polarization response is calculated by solving the Poisson–Nernst–Planck system for the current densities of one single anion and one single cation species representing the charge transport in the electrolyte and the diffuse layer at the pore surface. To include charge transport in the Stern layer, cations in the Stern layer have so far simply been considered by increasing the concentration of the diffuse layer cations. As we know from numerical modelling, this approach fails to predict the polarization response when the Stern layer is significantly charged. Here, we present a new semi-analytical model that treats the Stern-layer cations as a separate ion species and allows the Stern layer to polarize individually. To validate our new model, we compare it to the previously used analytical model and numerical simulations for different relative charges in Stern- and diffuse layer. We also use electrostatic surface-complexation models for two mineral surfaces (quartz and montmorillonite) to simulate the response of real geologic material under varying chemical conditions. This work is a step forward for considering realistic pore properties in induced-polarization modelling.

Effect of unsaturated or saturated ferroelectric polarization on electrocaloric effect

The pursuit of high-efficiency and zero-emission refrigeration technologies has spurred interest in electrocaloric (EC) refrigeration utilizing ferroelectric (FE) materials, where accurate characterization of the EC effect is crucial for comprehending its underlying physical mechanisms and for developing high-performance EC materials. In this study, we investigate the influence of unsaturated vs saturated FE polarization characteristics on EC effects using Pb0.99Nb0.02[(Zr0.6Sn0.4)0.85Ti0.15]0.98O3 ceramics. Direct EC measurement reveals that unsaturated loops can introduce substantial errors and even fake negative EC effects when employing the Maxwell approach for indirect EC measurement. In contrast, relatively accurate indirect EC results can be obtained using saturated FE hysteresis loops. Furthermore, it also highlights the necessity for saturated polarization conditions to achieve optimal EC performance in FEs. This work not only emphasizes the importance of carefully selecting polarization data for indirect EC measurements, but also presents a universal strategy to enhance EC effects in various materials.