Polarization Gratings Research Articles

Achromatic Wollaston prism beam splitter using polarization gratings.

We describe a method to achromatize a Wollaston prism beam splitter by combining it with a polarization grating. The advantage of this technique, compared to refractive methods of correction, is that only one type of birefringent crystal is needed. Additionally, the assembly can be made thinner while remaining achromatized. In this Letter, a model for the achromatized grating prism is formulated. Experimental validation is conducted by achromatizing a calcite Wollaston prism (apex angle of 5.35°) using a polarization grating with a spatial period of 253μm. We found that the primary dispersion was reduced by approximately 6.5 times for wavelengths spanning the conventional F, d, and C Fraunhofer lines (486 to 656nm).

Mueller imaging polarimetry of holographic polarization gratings inscribed in azopolymer films.

Three types of polarization gratings have been recorded in azopolymer films by the symmetrical superposition of different orthogonal pairs of polarized beams. The inscribed holographic elements have been analyzed microscopically in a Mueller polarimeter in order to image the optical anisotropies photoinduced in the film. In the most of cases, the spatial modulation of diattenuation, birefringence, and optical rotation reproduced quite well previous results reported in the literature. Nevertheless, in the particular case of coherent superposition of p- and s-polarized beams, the spatial frequency for optical rotation (related to the Stokes parameter V) was different from the one observed in linear anisotropy (related to the Stokes parameter U). It is shown by theory and experiment that, in the polarized field used to record this polarization grating, the fourth-Stokes parameter changes sign, which implies a change in circular polarization handedness, practically once between two adjacent maxima.

Non-uniformity correction for division of focal plane polarimeters with a calibration method.

Division of focal plane polarimeters are composed of nanometer polarization elements overlaid upon a focal plane array (FPA) sensor. The manufacturing flaws of the polarization grating and each detector in the FPA having a different photo response can introduce non-uniformity errors when reconstructing the polarization image without correction. A new calibration method is proposed to mitigate non-uniformity errors in the visible waveband. We correct non-uniformity in the form of a vector. The correction matrix and offset vector are calculated for the following correction. The performance of the proposed method is compared with state-of-the-art techniques by employing simulated data and real scenes. The experimental results showed that the proposed method can effectively mitigate non-uniformity errors and achieve better visual results.

Design and fabrication of a tunable wavelength-selective polarization grating.

Tunable wavelength-selective diffraction with polarization conversion is realized by the design of a liquid crystal (LC) grating containing a twisted nematic alignment structure that is fabricated by an efficient one-step photoalignment method. The diffraction efficiency strongly depends on the wavelength of the incident beam, and this property can be controlled by adjusting the birefringence of the nematic LC using a thermal control. These properties are well described by a theoretical analysis based on the Jones calculus and are experimentally demonstrated using 488, 532, and 633nm wavelength incident polarized laser beams. The resultant LC grating has potential applications as diffractive optical elements that can simultaneously control the parameters of light such as amplitude, wavelength, and polarization.

Oblique incidence effect on steering efficiency of liquid crystal polarization gratings used for optical phased array beam steering amplification

A liquid crystal polarization grating (LCPG) is proposed that amplifies the steering angle of a liquid crystal optical phased array for non-mechanical beam steering, taking advantage of its high steering efficiency under normal incidence. However, oblique incidence may play an important role in the overall steering efficiency. The effect of oblique incidence on steering efficiency of a LCPG was analyzed by numerically solving the extended Jones matrix and considering propagation crosstalk. The results indicate that the outgoing laser beam is amplitude-modulated under the effect of oblique incidence and behaves as a sinusoidal-modulated amplitude grating, which diffracts certain energies to non-blazed orders. Over-oblique incidence may even eliminate the steering effect of the incident beam. The modulation depth of the induced amplitude grating was found to be proportional to the product of sinusoidal value of oblique incidence angle and the LC layer thickness, and inversely proportional to the periodic pitch length of the LCPG. Both in-plane incidence and out-of-plane incidence behave similarly to influence the steering efficiency. Finally, the overall steering efficiency for cascaded LCPGs was analyzed and a difference of up to 11 % steering efficiency can be induced between different LCPG configurations, even without considering the over-oblique incidence effect. Both the modulation depth and final steering efficiency can be optimized by varying the LC birefringence and layer thickness.

Laser scanning by rotating polarization gratings.

Laser beam scanning can be realized using two independently rotating, inline polarization gratings, termed Risley gratings, in a fashion similar to Risley prisms. The analytical formulas of pointing position as well as their inverse solutions are described. On this basis, the beam scanning is investigated and the performance of scanning imaging is evaluated. It is shown that the scanning function in 1D scanning evolves from a sinusoidal to triangular scan and the duty cycle increases rapidly as the ratio of grating period to wavelength is reduced toward 2. The scan pattern in 2D scanning is determined by the ratio k of the gratings' rotatory frequency. In imaging applications, when k tends toward 1 or -1, the scan pattern becomes dense and is inclined to be spiral or rose-like, respectively, which is desirable for the purpose of enhancing spatial resolution. There is a direct trade-off between spatial resolution and frame rate. The spiral and rose scanning enable multiresolution imaging, providing a preview of the scanned area in a fraction of the overall scan time, which is extremely useful for fast, real-time imaging applications.

Distributed characterization of localized and stationary dynamic Brillouin gratings in polarization maintaining optical fibers.

We experimentally generate localized and stationary dynamic Brillouin gratings in a 5 m long polarization maintaining fiber by phase-modulation of the pumps with a pseudo-random bit sequence. The dynamic Brillouin gratings are characterized in terms of length, bandwidth, group delay and group delay ripple, optical signal-to-noise ratio and peak to sidelobe ratio by measuring the distribution of the complex reflected signal along the fiber through swept-wavelength interferometry. By numerical processing, the performance of an optimal modulation format enabling null off-peak reflections are estimated and compared to the pseudo-random bit sequence case.

Holographic liquid crystal polarization grating with Fabry-Perot structure.

A holographic liquid crystal polarization grating with a Fabry-Perot structure was developed. Because of its resonant structure, the device offers high levels of control of the diffraction properties of incident-polarized light beams, depending on the resonance conditions. The diffracted light beams are emitted in both the reflection and transmission directions, and the device thus works as a multibranch polarization grating with double optical paths, unlike a conventional polarization grating. These device features were experimentally demonstrated and were also explained theoretically.

Peculiar behaviour of optical polarization gratings in light-sensitive liquid crystalline elastomers

The angular dependence of the diffraction efficiency of volume-type holographic gratings recorded in a single-domain light-sensitive liquid crystalline elastomer was investigated. Usually this dependence is expected to be very similar for intensity gratings and for polarization gratings. However, our measurements resolved a profound difference between the two types of the gratings: a typical Bragg peak of the diffraction efficiency is observed only for intensity gratings, while polarization gratings exhibit a profound dip at the Bragg angle. The appearance of this dip is explained by strongly anisotropic optical absorption of the actinic light during the recording process.

Neural coding of image structure and contrast polarity of Cartesian, hyperbolic, and polar gratings in the primary and secondary visual cortex of the tree shrew.

We comprehensively characterize spiking and visual evoked potential (VEP) activity in tree shrew V1 and V2 using Cartesian, hyperbolic, and polar gratings. Neural selectivity to structure of Cartesian gratings was higher than other grating classes in both visual areas. From V1 to V2, structure selectivity of spiking activity increased, whereas corresponding VEP values tended to decrease, suggesting that single-neuron coding of Cartesian grating attributes improved while the cortical columnar organization of these neurons became less precise from V1 to V2. We observed that neurons in V2 generally exhibited similar selectivity for polar and Cartesian gratings, suggesting that structure of polar-like stimuli might be encoded as early as in V2. This hypothesis is supported by the preference shift from V1 to V2 toward polar gratings of higher spatial frequency, consistent with the notion that V2 neurons encode visual scene borders and contours. Neural sensitivity to modulations of polarity of hyperbolic gratings was highest among all grating classes and closely related to the visual receptive field (RF) organization of ON- and OFF-dominated subregions. We show that spatial RF reconstructions depend strongly on grating class, suggesting that intracortical contributions to RF structure are strongest for Cartesian and polar gratings. Hyperbolic gratings tend to recruit least cortical elaboration such that the RF maps are similar to those generated by sparse noise, which most closely approximate feedforward inputs. Our findings complement previous literature in primates, rodents, and carnivores and highlight novel aspects of shape representation and coding occurring in mammalian early visual cortex.

Fast-response and high-efficiency optical switch based on dual-frequency liquid crystal polarization grating

A dual-frequency liquid crystal polarization grating is fabricated by photoalignment and demonstrated as an optical switch. A high diffraction efficiency up to 95% is obtained for a single first order with circular incident polarization. Via merely alternating the frequency of applied electric field, the switch On and Off time reach 350 μs and 550 μs, respectively. This work supplies a new design for fast-response and high-efficiency optical switch with the merits of easy fabrication and low power consumption.

Diffraction gratings generating orders with selective states of polarization.

We propose specially designed double anisotropic polarization diffraction gratings capable of producing a selective number of diffraction orders and with selective different states of polarization. Different polarization diffraction gratings are demonstrated, including linear polarization with horizontal, vertical and ± 45° orientations, and circular R and L polarization outputs. When illuminated with an arbitrary state of polarization, the system acts as a complete polarimeter where the intensities of the diffraction orders allow measurement of the Stokes parameters with a single shot. Experimental proof-of-concept is presented using a parallel-aligned liquid crystal display operating in a double pass architecture.

Polarization mode coupling and related effects in fiber Bragg grating inscribed in polarization maintaining fiber.

Polarization mode coupling (PMC) and related effects from writing fiber Bragg gratings in polarization maintaining fiber (FBGs-in-PMF) are observed experimentally for the first time by optical fiber coherence domain polarimetry (OCDP) using a broadband light source. PMC is another useful aspect of FBG-in-PMF besides Bragg wavelength and its possible potential is evaluated and discussed. A localized and long range temperature measurement based on the PMC and Bragg wavelength is given as an example.

Microstructure of a reflection holographic grating inscribed in an absorptive azopolymer film

The microstructure of a reflection holographic grating fabricated via a photo-isomerization process in an absorptive azopolymer film is analyzed. A surface relief formation takes place on the film’s surface even in the reflection holographic configuration. The polarization-dependent diffraction efficiency and the polarization analysis reveal that the structure of the polarization grating inside the film strongly depends on the amount of optical absorption experienced by the two writing beams. A theoretical analysis shows that the reflection polarization grating, while mimicking a cholesteric liquid crystal structure, is composed of elliptic polarizations with the ellipticity going through a periodic modulation.

Simple system for measuring optical rotation of glucose solution using liquid-crystal grating

We demonstrate an optical system for measuring the concentrations of optically active media using liquid-crystal polarization gratings (LCPGs). The optical rotation angle is determined by measuring the intensities of two diffracted light beams from an LCPG combined with a quarter-wave plate (QWP). The intensity ratio is used to evaluate the optical rotation angle, minimizing the dependence on changes in light source intensity and wavelength and reducing the influence of temperature-drift-induced LC birefringence shifts. We demonstrate the system by measuring the concentration of a glucose–water solution. The measurement error caused by the slight wavelength dependence of the QWP’s retardation is assessed numerically.

Snapshot retinal imaging Mueller matrix polarimeter.

Early diagnosis of glaucoma, which is a leading cause for visual impairment, is critical for successful treatment. It has been shown that Imaging polarimetry has advantages in early detection of structural changes in the retina. Here, we theoretically and experimentally present a snapshot Mueller Matrix Polarimeter fundus camera, which has the potential to record the polarization-altering characteristics of retina with a single snapshot. It is made by incorporating polarization gratings into a fundus camera design. Complete Mueller Matrix data sets can be obtained by analyzing the polarization fringes projected onto the image plane. In this paper, we describe the experimental implementation of the snapshot retinal imaging Mueller matrix polarimeter (SRIMMP), highlight issues related to calibration, and provide preliminary images acquired from the camera.

Technique for Spectropolarimetry Based on Liquid Crystal Polarization Diffraction Grating

Technique for real-time spectropolarimetry is developed. An embedded system for circular dichroism registration is designed based on National Instruments single board reconfigurable I/O platform for ultraviolet and visible spectroscopic needs. The basic functional unit of the proposed device is liquid crystal polarization diffraction grating. In order to expand the dynamic range the control of data accumulation time is provided. Two NMOS sensor linear arrays provide an excellent linearity of response.

Optimization of direct-write polarization gratings

We recently reported on a mathematical formalism for analyzing the result of a direct-write scanning system applied to photoaligned liquid crystal films. We use that formalism to study the direct-write recording of polarization gratings (PGs). First, we evaluate three scan paths in simulation and experiment, describe their tradeoffs and practical constraints, and identify the most favorable. Second, we explore the parameter space of direct-write PGs in simulation, which includes four dimensions in general: grating period, line spacing, beam size, and spatially averaged fluence. Using this analysis, we predict that a certain portion of the parameter space should be optimal, leading to high diffraction efficiency and well-aligned PGs. Finally, we experimentally fabricate and characterize nine PGs with scan parameters within and around this optimal parameter space and conclude that the prediction is validated. This work is the first in-depth study of direct-write PGs; it identifies many challenges and solutions, and shows, for the first time, direct-write recorded PGs with quality equivalent to those recorded via holography. In particular, we demonstrate a PG (20 μm period) with first-order diffraction efficiency 99.5%, 0.2% haze, and polarization contrast of 2000.

Robust fast direct integral equation solver for quasi-periodic scattering problems with a large number of layers.

We present a new boundary integral formulation for time-harmonic wave diffraction from two-dimensional structures with many layers of arbitrary periodic shape, such as multilayer dielectric gratings in TM polarization. Our scheme is robust at all scattering parameters, unlike the conventional quasi-periodic Green's function method which fails whenever any of the layers approaches a Wood anomaly. We achieve this by a decomposition into near- and far-field contributions. The former uses the free-space Green's function in a second-kind integral equation on one period of the material interfaces and their immediate left and right neighbors; the latter uses proxy point sources and small least-squares solves (Schur complements) to represent the remaining contribution from distant copies. By using high-order discretization on interfaces (including those with corners), the number of unknowns per layer is kept small. We achieve overall linear complexity in the number of layers, by direct solution of the resulting block tridiagonal system. For device characterization we present an efficient method to sweep over multiple incident angles, and show a 25× speedup over solving each angle independently. We solve the scattering from a 1000-layer structure with 3 × 105 unknowns to 9-digit accuracy in 2.5 minutes on a desktop workstation.

Nonmechanical Laser Beam Steering Based on Polymer Polarization Gratings: Design Optimization and Demonstration

We present a wide-angle, nonmechanical laser beam steerer based on polymer polarization gratings with an optimal design approach for maximizing field-of-regard ( $F\!O\!R$ ). The steering design offers exponential scaling of the number of steering angles, called suprabinary steering. The design approach can be easily adapted for any 1-D or 2-D (e.g., symmetric or asymmetric FOR) beam steering. We simulate a system using a finite difference and ray tracing tools and fabricate coarse beam steerer with 65 $^{\circ}$ $F\!O\!R$ with $\sim$ 8 $^{\circ}$ resolution at 1550 nm. We demonstrate high optical throughput (84 $\%$ –87 $\%$ ) that can be substantially improved by optimizing substrates and electrode materials. This beam steerer can achieve very low sidelobes and supports comparatively large beam diameters paired with a very thin assembly and low beam walk-off. We also demonstrate using a certain type of LC variable retarder that the total switching time from any steering angle to another can be 1.7 ms or better.