Poland Research Articles

John Paul II and Opposition Activities in Soviet Bloc Countries

The purpose of this article is to present the role of Pope John Paul II in the overthrow of the Communist system in Central Europe based primarily on the scientific literature on the subject and the published documents. The author’s attention is focused, for obvious reasons, on Poland, as well as on neighbouring countries with a significant number of Catholics within their borders: Czechoslovakia, Hungary and the Republic of Lithuania within the Soviet Union. John Paul II’s visit to the People’s Republic of Poland on 2–10 June 1979 went down in history as “nine days that changed the world”. The pilgrimage was the catalyst for changes in social awareness in Poland, leading to the creation of Solidarity in 1980. In the following years, the pope sustained the spirit of resistance in Polish society during the harsh period of martial law and beyond. Under his inspiration, the church played a mediating role in the 1989 Round Table talks between the authorities and the opposition. The election of Karol Wojtyła, a cardinal from a neighbouring country, and the subsequent activities of the new pope had a profound impact on the revival of the religious life of Catholics in Czechoslovakia and Lithuania. Breaking the barrier of fear resulted in more substantial involvement of Catholics in opposition activities. The revival of the Church in Hungary was less successful, but the personality and teaching of John Paul II encouraged Catholics in that country, too, in opposition activities against the Communist regime.

God and State Above All

Abstract This article explores how politically active Polish women starting in the late nineteenth century until the start of World War II viewed themselves and their duties vis-a-vis the Polish nation. It traces the women's movement in Poland from the first calls for women's right to work, to their eventual enfranchisement under a newly independent Polish state in 1918. Challenges to women's equality took many forms: men from both sides of the political spectrum viewed women's entry into the salaried workforce and the public sphere as largely undesirable and deployed a variety of arguments to reinforce traditional gender hierarchy. Yet many educated Polish women, even from conservative, Catholic perspectives, viewed their engagement in the public sphere as necessary work for the good of the Polish nation. This article uses letters, political pamphlets, and published works to explore how modern Polish women attempted to strike a balance between breaking and preserving traditional notions of gender in order to secure new rights for themselves in a volatile political atmosphere. While Polish women's groups differed on their vision of the ideal Polish state, they generally agreed that women's roles as mothers provided the moral legitimacy required to act in the public sphere. They successfully carved a space for themselves in the new Polish state of 1918 but remained marginalized in a separate and unequal status in the interwar period.

Commission v. Poland (Régime disciplinaire des juges);Comment on the judgment of the CJEU of 15/07/2021 (Grand Chamber), case C-791/19

The author presents the situation of legal relations that took place in the period 2015-2023 between Poland and the European Union (EU). The reform of the justice system organized by the ruling party was appealed by the European Commission to the Court of Justice of the EU. The CJEU analyzed and assessed the following fundamental legal issues: failure to fulfill obligations by a Member State, the rule of law, the system of disciplinary liability of judges, judicial independence, effective legal protection in areas covered by EU law, recognition of the content of judicial decisions as disciplinary offenses, compliance with reasonable deadlines, respect for the rights of judges to defense in disciplinary proceedings, the right and obligation of national courts to refer requests to the CJEU for a preliminary ruling. It ruled that the Republic of Poland (RP) had failed to fulfill its obligations towards the European Union (EU). This study concerns case law. The situation created during this period resulted in a significant weakening of the protection of the value of the rule of law within the meaning of the extensive case law of the CJEU presented in this article. According to this body, the Republic of Poland has failed to fulfill the obligations set out in the EU treaties.

The impact of the Russia-Ukraine war on crime dynamics in the Republic of Poland in terms of ukrainian refugeeism

ObjectivesThe objectiv of the study was to answer the question: what impact has the wave of refugees from Ukraine caused by the outbreak of war on its territory had on the dynamics of crime in Poland?Material and methodsThe arrivals from Ukraine in the Republic of Poland and departures for Ukraine were analyzed. The study also examines the population dynamics in Poland from 2018 to 2023, including deaths and births. The research also takes into account the impact of the Covid-19 pandemic on the population size in Poland. Such an approach was necessary to conduct a comparative analysis of changes in population dynamics and crime dynamics in Poland in order to determine the relationship between them in the examined period, taking into account national demographic changes. At the same time, crimes detected in Poland from 2019 to 2023 in the same periods, from January to October, were analyzed.ResultsStudies show that the COVID-19 pandemic and migration from Ukraine to Poland had a noticeable impact on the population in the Republic of Poland. In 2021, the population in Poland decreased, which was mainly due to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic and a large increase in the number of deaths. In 2022, compared to 2021, there was an increase in the population as a result of a decrease in human deaths, as well as the granting of Polish citizenship to foreigners in 2022. At the same time, the analysis looked at the numbers of crimes found in Poland in 2019-2023 in univariate time frames from January to October combined, which showed no significant changes in this regard.ConclusionsThe results from the research allowed to conclude that the wave of refugees from Ukraine caused by the outbreak of war on its territory did not noticeably affect the increase in crime in Poland.

Prawo do tożsamości dziecka urodzonego w drodze surogacji

The following article examines the right to identity of children born through surrogacy. It is a review of international law, the jurisprudence of the European Court of Human Rights (in particular, Mennesson v. France, Labassee v. France, Paradiso and Campanelli v. Italy, A.M. v. Norway), Polish state law, jurisprudence and legal literature, the purpose of which is to establish: what is the right to identity, what is its scope and elements, and what is the current standard of protection of the child’s identity. The article also addresses the conflict between the right to identity of a child born as a result of a surrogate pregnancy, in the context of the right to know one’s origin, and the right to privacy of gamete donors who wish to preserve their anonymity.

Peculiarities of legal regulation of the tax system of local self-government bodies in the Republic of Poland

The article is devoted to the analysis of the peculiarities of the legal regulation of the tax system of local self-government bodies in the Republic of Poland.
 It is shown that the modern system of local taxes began to form in the 90s of the last century, together with the restoration of the institution of local self-government. Despite the constitutional enshrinement of the right of all local self-government bodies to determine the amount of local taxes, ordinary legislation grants tax powers exclusively to the lowest link in the three-level system - the commune. Financing of the functions and powers of local self-government bodies of voivodships and poviats takes place through deductions from national taxes and fees. The author focuses on the existence of a distinction between the terms "local taxes” and "taxes of local self-government bodies” in the Polish doctrine of tax law. Local taxes are taxes that, by virtue of the law, are a permanent, indefinite and exclusive source of income for local budgets. Meanwhile, taxes of local self-government bodies are payments in respect of which local self­government bodies have tax powers. In light of the accepted criteria, for example, inheritance and gift tax is a local tax, but cannot be called a tax of local governments. Funds from this tax are fully credited to the budget of the territorial community, but local self-government bodies do not have tax authority over it. The list of local taxes is contained in the Law "On Local Taxes and Fees”. However, in reality, this list is incomplete and does not include a number of local taxes that are regulated by other legislative acts. In general, the list of local taxes is quite voluminous, in which only real estate tax, vehicle tax, forest tax and agricultural tax belong to the taxes of local self-government bodies. They meet the formal and material criteria that characterize the "own income” of local self-government units, while others only meet the formal criteria.

A comparative analysis of compounding aqueous extracts from the medicinal plant raw material in accordance with the requirements of the regulatory legal acts of Ukraine and the European Union

In the world pharmaceutical practice, there are significant differences regarding the requirements for the technological parameters of aqueous extracts from medicinal plant raw materials.
 Aim. To conduct a comparative analysis of the requirements of regulatory documents of Ukraine, the European Union and Poland regarding the compounding of water extracts from medicinal plant raw materials.
 Materials and methods. Comparative analysis was carried out using systemic and structural-logical analysis. The object of research was normative legal acts regulating medicines compounding in Ukraine, European Pharmacopoeia (EP) XI ed., European Medicines Agency (EMA), Pharmacopoeia of Poland (PP) VI and IX ed., textbook "Farmacja stosowana, Technologia formaci leku; podręcznik dla studentów farmacji" and others.
 Results and discussion. As a result of the analysis, a few distinctive features in the technology of water extracts from medicinal plant raw materials were revealed compared to the requirements of the EU and Poland. According to the requirements of European Pharmacopoeia and the European Medicines Agency, aqueous extracts from medicinal plant raw materials, so-called herbal teas, are prepared with the methods of maceration, infusion and decoction. Macerates are prepared from mucilaginous medicinal plant raw materials with the method of cold infusion at room temperature for 30 minutes. Infusions are usually prepared from delicate parts of the plant, while medicinal plant raw materials are poured with hot water with an initial temperature of 90-100 ºС and infused by gradually cooling the extract at room temperature for 5-15 minutes. Decoctions are usually prepared from roots, rhizomes and bark by boiling medicinal plant raw materials in a boiling water bath for 15-30 minutes, while the raw materials are initially poured with an extractant at room temperature, and after boiling, the extract is immediately filtered.
 The compounding peculiarities of water extracts from medicinal plant raw materials in Poland are as follows: the ratio of medicinal plant raw materials to the extractant with weak biologically active substances is 1:10, with mucus-containing medicinal plant raw materials – 1:20; for medicinal plant raw materials with cardiac glycosides and alkaloids – 1:100; water extracts are prepared by mass, while water absorption coefficients or consumption coefficients are not taken into account; for acidification, 0.5 g of citric acid per 100 g of extractant is added to extracts from alkaloid-containing raw materials; macerates are prepared from mucilage-containing raw materials only by the cold infusion method (for example, flax seed macerate); infusions are prepared only from medicinal plant raw materials containing cardiac glycosides (Lily of the Valley herb, Adonis vernalis herb), where raw materials are poured with boiling water, infused in a water bath for 15 minutes and cooled at room temperature for 15 minutes; decoctions are always prepared from other types of medicinal plant raw materials, where the raw materials are poured with an extractant at room temperature, heated and boiled in a boiling water bath for 30 minutes, filtered without cooling.
 Conclusions. A comparative analysis of the technological parameters of water extracts compounding from medicinal plant raw materials in accordance with the requirements of regulatory documents of Ukraine, the European Union and the Republic of Poland was carried out. A number of differences have been established, particularly in the methods of recipes prescribing, features of calculations, in the ratio of medicinal plant raw materials to the extractant, temperature regimes, extraction time, medium pH, the concepts of the processes of maceration, infusion and decoction. It was found that compared to domestic regulations, the technological process in the EU and Poland is optimized in terms of time, energy and in some cases, raw material expenditure. The obtained results have a practical importance, as they are the basis for further scientific research on the substantiation of the influence of technological factors on the quantitative content of the main groups of biological active substances in the compounded water extracts.

Providing asylum – Spatial distribution of accommodation facilities for Ukrainian refugees against the background of local conditions in a less developed Polish region

Motives: The war in Ukraine has led to the need to help millions of refugees. Poland has issued the highest number of first residence permits to Ukrainian refugees, and it is the second most popular destination country for the Ukrainians taking long-term refuge. Polish society has shown commendable solidarity – individuals have hosted Ukrainian refugees in their homes, businesses provided shelter in tourist sites, and other organizations – in their facilities. This study highlights an important issue that is usually overlooked in academic studies. Many refugees benefited from the assistance of reception points for accommodation and were directed to places where accommodation was arranged. As a result, thousands of refugees were directed to less developed regions with higher unemployment rates and lower income levels.Aim: The study aimed to present the spatial distribution of the currently used accommodation financed by the Polish state in a less developed region against its socio-economic characteristics. The study focused on powiats (counties), the second-level unit of administration in Poland.Results: The spatial distribution of accommodation facilities was not based on the favorablesocio-economic attributes of the area but solely on the availability of premises that could be promptly adapted for shelter purposes.

Savings in social expenditures for work incapacity in patients with inflammatory bowel disease depend on access to innovative therapies in Poland.

Inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) are an increasing burden for societies. We examined Polish Social Insurance Institution (ZUS) work incapacity expenditures for people with IBD compared with the general population. Aggregate data were obtained on ZUS expenditures between 2012 and 2021 in Polish zlotys (PLN). Annual work incapacity benefit expenditures were analyzed and IBD benefit expenditures were examined relative to innovative IBD drug utilization in individual provinces. Between 2012 and 2021, annual ZUS expenditures per person increased, while expenditures per IBD patient decreased. Proportionally, absenteeism was the largest ZUS expenditure in the general population, while disability pensions were the largest in the IBD population. ZUS expenditures due to absenteeism in the general population increased by PLN 282 per person; those due to disability pensions decreased by PLN 85. Disability pension spending due to Crohn's disease (CD) and ulcerative colitis (UC) decreased by PLN 371 and PLN 284, respectively, while absenteeism spending per person with CD and UC decreased (PLN 58 and PLN 35, respectively). Nationwide in 2021, 8.5% of people with CD and 1.9% of those with UC received innovative drugs. The percentage of people receiving innovative drugs and ZUS expenditure per person were inversely related in 9/16 provinces for CD and 5/16 for UC. Polish state spending on work incapacity benefits increased in the general population but decreased in people with IBD between 2012 and 2021. Use of innovative drugs was associated with reduced spending per person with IBD in some provinces.

Laser Remelting of Ductile Cast Iron to Achieve a Graphite-Free Surface Layer for Enabling a Manual High-Gloss Finish

Laser remelting is being explored as a viable technique for obtaining a graphite-free, defect-free surface layer on cast iron EN GJS 400-15. The goal is to obtain a large remelted layer along with a low surface roughness to enable a subsequent manual high-gloss surface finish. The impact of the laser remelting process parameters is evaluated by using samples with three different cooling rates, resulting in different graphite microstructures. By utilizing four passes and a laser power of 300 W, the smallest roughness and largest remelting depth are achieved. The remelted layer is mostly devoid of graphite particles. Subsequent manual polishing is performed to evaluate the potential for achieving a high-gloss finish with a roughness of Sa < 0.05 µm. Laser remelting alone does not improve visual appearance or reduce roughness. However, after manual polishing, the roughness of the laser-remelted surfaces with Sa = 0.018 µm is one order of magnitude smaller than the manually polished initial state. Graphite removal during laser remelting therefore makes it possible to achieve a conventional and high-gloss polish, overcoming the previous limitations of GJS materials.

Influence of chemistry and surface roughness of various thermal barrier coatings on the wettability of molten sand

High temperature wettability experiments were carried out to investigate how chemistry and surface roughness affect wetting characteristics of molten sand several promising thermal/environmental barrier coatings. Contact angle experiments were performed on varying as-sprayed and polished yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ), rare-earth oxide-YSZ (REO-YSZ), and rare-earth silicate coatings subjected to molten synthetic sand at 1260 °C. The results showed that the spreading rate of molten sand was higher on silicate-based environmental barrier coatings (~60°/min) than on Zr-based thermal barrier coatings (~25°/min). Increased surface roughness had opposite effects on the wettability depending on the reactivity of the coatings. Wettability decreased on coatings such as YSZ (which did not react with sand) but increased for REO-YSZ coatings (which formed reaction products with sand). It was found that while the REO-YSZ coatings were able to promote formation of the apatite that performed as a sealing layer to reduce further infiltration, molten sand wetting increased. YSZ was found to have greater wetting resistance in the roughened state while the REO-YSZ coatings had greater wetting resistance in the polished state. Surface energy, microstructure, and molten sand penetration also play a key role in the wetting kinetics and are discussed. This work reveals the dependency of chemistry and surface roughness on influencing the “sandphobicity” (analogous to hydrophobicity) of a material and provides insights for optimizing these variables to realize more “sandphobic” coatings.

Keep the Peace at Home to Shape the Peace Abroad: A Study of Elite Influence on Winston Churchill and British Foreign Policy at the Yalta Conference, 1945

ABSTRACT As the end of World War II and a parliamentary election approached, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill’s wartime authority diminished. The erosion of influence at home could not have come at a worse time for Churchill abroad, who sought to rebuild a postwar world order at the February 1945 Yalta Conference to resurrect Britain’s global influence. Exploiting the erosion of Churchill’s unprecedented wartime powers, formal and fringe political elites pressured Churchill to align his postwar preferences at Yalta with prevailing elite views on major geopolitical issues. In doing so, these elites – which included senior government officials, newspaper editorialists, and members of Parliament – ultimately compelled Churchill to advocate for the United Nations and a free and democratic Poland at Yalta, despite his belief that both plans would undermine Britain’s postwar influence. In examining the critical role elite-leader relations played in shaping Cold War history, this paper seeks to improve the study of democratic foreign policy analysis by emphasizing Kenneth Waltz’s “first image” (the role of a leader’s motivations and intentions) and the role of non-government (or “fringe”) elites. Finally, it concludes that parliamentary democracies are more receptive to elite influence because elites have greater opportunities to drive policy debates and challenge political authority.

Our ancestors: the Cimbri, Goths and Sarmatians. Three ethnogenetic legends in early modern Europe

ABSTRACT The study presented here is an attempt at a comparative analysis of three early modern phenomena in the history of ideas and culture: three ethnogenetic theories about the origins of the Swedish (Gothic) and Polish (Sarmatian) nations and states, as well as that of the Danes, originating from the ancient Cimbri. First, they will be compared as historiographic concepts characteristic of early modern knowledge. The next part of the paper concerns modifications to these theories made in national historiographies and the broader visions of the history of the respective countries based on them. The last part of the study presents how these ideas function at the political level, both in relation to broader visions of political reality and political practice. The analysis suggests that while in the case of the 16th-century historical concepts of origo gentis, there are more similarities than differences, the subsequent stages of development show increasing differentiation: the ideas of Sarmatian ethnogenesis underwent greater changes than others. However, there are similarities in the way Gothic and Sarmatian ideas functioned in political life and politics during that period in Sweden and Poland, respectively. The weakest point is the influence of Cimbrian ethnogenesis on the politics of Denmark at that time.

Determinants of the Polish State Budget Stability

The problem of the stability of budget revenue and expenditure has been the subject of research for many years. However, there is still a need to monitor this phenomenon to achieve a correct balance in the budget because of the instability of different factors in the economic surroundings that affect the budget. This is especially important in developing countries undergoing economic transformation, and Poland is still in that process. The study aims to assess changes in the Polish state budget’s size and revenue and expenditure structure between 2000 and 2022. The method of comparative analysis over time is used with the actual value of the money concept, measures of dynamics, structure, GDP ratios, statistical description and coefficients of dissimilarity of structures. Analyses have shown a permanent imbalance in the Polish budget. However, the budget’s primary result oscillates around zero and both revenues and expenditures have gradually increased. The volatility of budget revenue and spending is moderate. Only the use of EU funds is characterised by high volatility. The emerging crises (e.g. Russia’s war against Ukraine and the coronavirus pandemic) have a negligible impact on the budget structure, but they influence its level of expenditure. The changes in Polish budget size are generally due to inflation, economic growth rates, and the inflow of funds from the European Union budget.

Foreign body within the upper esophagus of a patient not consenting to surgical treatment – case report and legal proceedings in light of current case law

<b><br>Introduction:</b> Patients intentionally inserting foreign bodies into the lumen of their gastrointestinal tract usually aim at achieving certain benefits, such as postponement or avoidance of punishment.</br> <b><br>Aim:</b> In view of the ever-increasing number of proceedings (including criminal proceedings) against health care professionals, the authors carried out a review of the available literature on: medical actions undertaken in cases of foreign bodies within the esophagus, current legislation and jurisprudence as practiced in the Republic of Poland within the context of model legal proceedings in cases involving patients raising doubts about being fully conscious and not consenting to necessary treatment.</br> <b><br>Case report:</b> The article presents a case of a patient with an esophageal foreign body who had not consented to the proposed surgical treatment. Doubts as raised within the otorhinolaryngological team with regard to the patient’s state of consciousness were not dispelled as the result of psychiatric consultation. Following a meticulous analysis of the current jurisprudence of the Polish judicial system and obtaining a court’s permission to intervene, the procedure (esophagoscopy with removal of esophageal foreign body) was performed. After exclusion of any life-threatening complications, the patient was transferred to the Psychiatric Department.</br> <b><br>Conclusions:</b> In the current state of the law, performing a procedure to remove a foreign body from the esophagus without prior court approval could qualify as a violation of patient’s rights. In such case, legal liability of the physician would arise regardless of the fact that the patient would have received care in accordance with the current medical knowledge and practice.</br>

Nie tylko wielka literatura

The history of literature and art history were not included in the programme of my historical studies (1960–1965). Naturally, all history professors would usually include something about art and literature in their lectures on “their” historical period, but not as a key element. Efforts were made to separate history and belles‑lettres (in its various manifestations). A strongly positivist vision of research and transferring its results to the general public was cultivated – which had its advantages in the face of ideological pressure on science in the People's Republic of Poland. Today, the function of both historical sources and statements on history are frequently taken on by literature, which I define very broadly: literary texts (sometimes even of clearly inferior quality), political texts, diaries and journals, journalistic reports, petitions, defence speeches, sometimes letters. Also interesting for the historian is the route these texts take to the reading or listening public, as well as their reception, sometimes their renaissance after many years. There is no need to add that with such an approach, the people who are the authors of even outstanding historical works are not necessarily those who are professional historians.

Nie taki diabeł straszny, jak go (w telewizji) malują? Dehumanizacja jako narzędzie dyskredytacji przeciwnika politycznego na przykładzie Donalda Tuska

The subject of the research is the image of donald Tusk as the leader of the Civic Coalition and the informal leader of the opposition in Poland, emerging from public television broadcasts, in particular from the main edition of Wiadomości” broadcast on TVP1. The article identifies and discusses a set of means of expression and television techniques used by the program's producers to discredit a political opponent. It was assumed that the malicious discrediting of donald Tusk takes place, among others, using a dehumanization strategy. In order to obtain results that will enable the purpose of the research to be achieved, the following questions were asked: 1. What image of the opposition leader emerges from the evening edition of the TVP1 news program?; 2. does the way of portraying donald Tusk bear the hallmarks of malicious discredit?; 3. Which dehumanization techniques do TVP producers use and how?; 4. What threats does the dehumanization of a political opponent pose to the individual and the state of democracy in Poland? The sample included the content of 32 main editions of Wiadomości (2021–2022), and the research was qualitative (semiotic analysis, discourse analysis).

Foreign Affairs in the Policy of the Regency Council

The proclamation of Polish statehood and the establishment of the Regency Council in 1917 enabled the undertaking of diplomatic activities in the Central Powers to ensure the conditions for the Polish state to be viable. The aim of the paper is to present the construction of the foundations of Polish politics – the diplomacy of the Regency Council administration through its government offices, as well as to seek answers to the questions whether the assumed intentions were implemented and what was the result of initiatives and activities in this area on the international arena?

The Role of the System of Bodies of the Regency Council of the Kingdom (State) of Poland in the Reconstruction of Polish Statehood (Selected Problems)

The paper refers to selected key political issues related to the construction of central state bodies of the reborn Polish statehood in the years 1917–1918. This construction (organization) was started by activist circles in the proclaimed (reactivated) Kingdom of Poland on November 5, 1916, by emperors of Germany and Austria-Hungary. The emancipatory bodies formed at the time – the Provisional Council of States followed by the Regency Council of the Kingdom of Poland – made efforts to organize the state structures of the reborn statehood, which de facto worked for the future “United Polish State” and as such were taken over and fully used by the sovereign Polish authorities after November 11–14, 1918.

Traditions of French Constitutionalism in Polish Constitutional Thought

The influence of French constitutionalism on the Polish legal order is still present in the studies and analyses of the doctrine of constitutional law. Indeed, the French constitutional tradition forms part of the European legal heritage to which the founders of Polish statehood readily referred. The present text outlines the main thoughts and ideas which, over a period of more than two hundred years – from the second half of the 18th century to the present day – have influenced the constitutional shape of the Polish state either by way of recapitulating or negating various institutional solutions.