Varied Tit Research Articles

Spatial Structure and Colonization Process of Varied Tit Populations in the Izu Islands

The Izu Islands of Japan are a geographically young volcanic archipelago nearer to the mainland than other islands used in speciation studies, such as the Galapagos Islands of Ecuador. On the Izu Islands, birds are likely to have undergone recent colonization and trait diversification. Three morphological groups of Varied Tits, Poecile varius, breed on the islands. The varius group, which has the smallest body size and is the same as that found on the mainland, breeds on the northernmost island (closest to the mainland). The namiyei group, which has an intermediate body size, breeds on two or three central islands, and the owstoni group, which has the largest body size, is found on several southern islands. To infer the gene flow ranges and colonization processes of Varied Tits with such obvious trait polymorphisms among the Izu Islands, we analyzed the genetic population structures of these three morphological groups. In genetic analysis of all samples, individuals were first divided into cluster A, which was composed of individuals from Kohzu Island (a central island) from the namiyei group, and cluster B, which was composed of individuals from mainland sites and other islands (excluding Kohzu and Niijima). The genetic characteristics of individuals from Niijima may indicate a recent gene flow event between clusters A and B. Individuals from the owstoni group were genetically similar to varius group individuals, despite the large distance between the breeding areas of these two groups. The second step of our analysis used samples from cluster B. These samples were grouped into three clusters, one of which was further classified into two clusters in our third-step analysis. In conclusion, we detected a hierarchical structure among Varied Tits breeding on the Izu Islands and inferred that ancestors of the owstoni group colonized from the mainland more recently than those of the namiyei group.

Extra-Pair Paternity in Varied TitsPoecile varius

Extra-pair paternity is of particular interest in socially monogamous species, in which there is a substantial discrepancy between social and genetic mating systems. Varied Tits Poecile varius are socially monogamous passerine birds with a distribution in Japan, Korea, and northeast China. We established paternity in all individuals of 40 broods by microsatellite genotyping. Extra-pair paternity occurred in 16 of the 40 broods (40%) and accounted for about 14.7% (37/251) of offspring, higher than the average value (11%) among socially monogamous birds. The relatedness between social partners did not correlate with the percentage of extra-pair offspring in the brood and there was no difference in heterozygosity between maternal half-siblings. As the first such investigation in this species, this study adds to our understanding of their mating system and will be useful for comparative studies of variations in extra-pair paternity rate.

Incorporating Color into Integrative Taxonomy: Analysis of the Varied Tit (Sittiparus varius) Complex in East Asia

Species designations are critically important scientific hypotheses that serve as the foundational units in a wide range of biological subdisciplines. A growing realization that some classes of data fail to delimit species under certain conditions has led to increasingly more integrative taxonomies, whereby species discovery and hypothesis testing are based on multiple kinds of data (e.g., morphological, molecular, behavioral, ecological, etc.). However, although most taxonomic descriptions have been based on morphology, some key morphological features, such as color, are rarely quantified and incorporated into integrative taxonomic studies. In this article, we applied a new method of ultraviolet digital photography to measure plumage variation in a color-variable avian species complex, the varied tit (Sittiparus varius). Plumage measurements corroborated species limits defined by morphometric, mitochondrial DNA, and nuclear DNA disjunctions and provided the only evidence for distinguishing two recently evolved species. Importantly, color quantification also provided a justification for lumping putative taxa with no evidence of evolutionary independence. Our revised taxonomy thus refines conservation units for listing and management and clarifies the primary units for evolutionary studies. Species tree analyses, which applied the newly delimited species as operational taxonomic units, revealed a robust phylogenetic hypothesis for the group that establishes a foundation for future biogeographic analyses. This study demonstrates how digital photography can be used to incorporate color character variation into integrative taxonomies, which should lead to more informed, more rigorous, and more accurate assessments of biodiversity. [Color, digital photography, integrative taxonomy, Sittiparus varius, species delimitation, varied tit.].

Breeding ecology of tits using artificial nest boxes in coniferous and deciduous forests in Mt. Namsan, Seoul Metropolitan, Korea

This study was conducted to elucidate the breeding ecology of tits in artificial nest boxes in both deciduous and coniferous forests located in Mt. Namsan, Seoul Metropolitan, Korea, from March to June 2012. Great tit Parus major and varied tit P. varius both used the artificial nest boxes in the coniferous forest, but only the great tit used the artificial nest boxes in the deciduous forest for breeding. There were 27 artificial nest boxes in the coniferous forest and 17 in the deciduous forest. The rate of breeding success was 6.7–26.7% for both study sites. The clutch size of varied tits was less than that of great tits. Brood size, incubation period and nestling care period were the same for great and varied tits in the coniferous forest. There were no differences related to forest type for number of breeding pairs, breeding behaviors, egg measurements, and results of hatching, fledgling and breeding for great tits bred in artificial nest boxes. Long-term ecological research on food availability and breeding success of tits is needed for the conservation of these birds and their habitats.

A complete multilocus species phylogeny of the tits and chickadees (Aves: Paridae)

The avian family Paridae (tits and chickadees) contains c. 55 species distributed in the Palearctic, Nearctic, Afrotropics and Indomalaya. The group includes some of the most well-known and extensively studied avian species, and the evolutionary history, in particular the post-glacial colonization of the northern latitudes, has been comparably well-studied for several species. Yet a comprehensive phylogeny of the whole clade is lacking. Here, we present the first complete species phylogeny for the group based on sequence data from two nuclear introns and one mitochondrial gene for 67 taxa of parids. Our results strongly support the inclusion of the Fire-capped Tit (Cephalopyrus flammiceps), currently placed in the Remizidae, as the most basal member of the Paridae. The Yellow-browed Tit (Sylviparus modestus) and the Sultan Tit (Melanochlora sultanea) constitute the next two sequential branches whereas the remaining tits fall into two large clades, one of which contains the seed hoarding and nest excavating species. The indicated clades within these two groups are largely congruent with recent classifications, but with several unforeseen relationships, such as non-monophyly of the Sombre Tit (Poecile lugubris) and the Marsh Tit (Poecile palustris), as well as non-monophyly of both the African gray and the African black tits. Further, our results support a close relationship between the White-fronted Tit (Parus semilarvatus) and the varied Tit (Poecile varius) as well as a close relationship between the White-naped Tit (Parus nuchalis) and the Yellow-cheeked and Black-lored tits (Parus spilonotus and P. xanthogenys). Finally, Hume’s Ground-tit (Pseudopodoces humilis) is found to be closely related to the Green-backed Tit (Parus monticolus) and the Great Tit (Parus major). We propose a new classification that is in accordance with this phylogeny.

Warning signals confer advantage to prey in competition with predators: bumblebees steal nests from insectivorous birds

Aposematic (warning) signals of prey help predators to recognize the defended distasteful or poisonous prey that should be avoided. The evolution of aposematism in the context of predation has been in the center of modern ecology for a long time. But, the possible roles of aposematic signals in other ecological contexts have been largely ignored. Here we address the role of aposematic signals in competition between prey and predators. Bumblebees use visual and auditory aposematic signals to warn predators about their defenses. For 2 years, we observed competition for nestboxes between chemically defended insects, Bombus ardens (and possibly also Bombus ignitus), and cavity nesting birds (Parus minor and Poecile varius). Bumblebees settled in 16 and 9 % of nestboxes (in 2010 and 2011 breeding seasons, respectively) that contained bird nests at the advanced stage of nest building or at the stage of egg laying. Presence of bumblebees prevented the birds from continuing the breeding activities in the nestboxes, while insects took over the birds’ nests (a form of kleptoparasitism). Playback experiments showed that the warning buzz by bumblebees contributed to the success in ousting the birds from their nests. This demonstrates that aposematic signals may be beneficial also in the context of resource competition.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s00265-013-1553-2) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

人工巢箱条件下两种山雀鸟类的同域共存机制

Birds adjust their survival strategies in the face of interspecific competition.Integrative analysis is important for understanding the main factors accounting for coexistence mechanism of different species.Parus major and Parus varius are long-term coexistence avian species in eastern mountainous area of Liaoning province.However,we still know little about the mechanism accounting for their coexistence.During March to July in each year from 2009 to 2011,we attracted both species with artificial nest boxes.With the aim to reveal the mechanism of their coexistence,we analyze the breeding habitat selection and reproduction strategy for both species. The results showed that niche separation was the underlying mechanism for the long-term coexistence.Both of those two species immediately started to breed when breeding season arrival.Both of them showed two breeding peaks in each year.When environmental quality was poor,they chose brood reduction strategy in order to improve reproductive success.The breeding strategies for those two species belonged to k-choice,with that of Parus major was slightly close to r.Parus major had high egg number but low reproductive success,whereas Parus varius had low nest egg number and high reproductive success. Based on step discriminant analysis,we found that the average height of trees,nest height from ground,and tree abundance were important factors accounting for nest site selection of Parus major.For Parus varius,the average height of trees,vegetation types,and the average height of shrubs were important factors.Comparing the nest site selection activities of those two species,they both like their nest boxes in old forest and have some angle and vegetation around growth lush.Parus major often paid more attention to the safety performance of their nest sites as indicated by the fact that their nest sites were usually apart from the ground.In contrast,Parus varius usually located their nest sites in mixed wood,which may be closely related to its food structure.

산림성 조류(Forest-DwellingBirds)의 인공소상 이용에 관한 연구

This study was conducted to investigate use of artificial nest boxes of the forest-dwelling birds. The Jusan-reservoir located in Juwangsan-National Park is the main installation area of the 30 artificial nest boxes. In our study, varied tit Parus varius, great tit P. major, and marsh tit P. palustris used the artificial nest boxes at the study area. The used rate of the artificial nest boxes was 46.6% (n=14). There are differences in use among heights of the artificial nest boxes used by three species respectively (One-way ANOVA, F=14.536, p<0.05). According to the direction of the entrance of used artificial nest boxes, the used rate of them showed nonsignificant difference (Chi-square test, χ2=5.606, p=0.132), but appeared to be preferred of the south. Our results suggest that use of the artificial nest box can be correlated with heights of artificial nest boxes (Binominal logistic regression, Wald=7.626, df=1. p<0.05). Correlation analysis between minimum temperature and date of egg-laying showed significant differences (t-test, t=－2.259, p<0.05).

Sympatric divergence of risk sensitivity and diet menus in three species of tit

Divergent diet menus could cause sympatric divergence of risk sensitivity; however, evidence is not yet available for the functional link between diet menu and risk sensitivity. We investigated risk sensitivity (measured as the discount intensity for probabilistic rewards) and diet menu (insectivory and granivory) among three sympatric species of tits (family Paridae): varied tits, Poecile varius, marsh tits, Poecile palustris, and great tits, Parus major, which form mixed-species foraging flocks in Japan. Binary choice tests, offering rewards of differing amount and probability, were conducted in the laboratory. Great tits and marsh tits were found to be risk prone (and more insectivorous), whereas varied tits were risk averse (and more granivorous). Diet menus were examined in the laboratory using behavioural titration tests between sunflower seeds and mealworms. The results of these tests were similar to patterns of food exploitation determined using stable isotope analysis (δ13C and δ15N contents) of blood samples from birds collected in the wild. Possibly, the dominant varied tits drove the other two species of tits towards different diet menus and unusually high risk proneness. In future, we should examine whether different interspecies interactions cause different risk sensitivity in other geographical environments.

北海道におけるヤマガラの繁殖期の分布

北海道におけるヤマガラの繁殖期の分布

Study of Avifauna from Seodeukbong to Taebaeksan Mountain in BaekduDaegan

The results of the study on the avian fauna of the Taebaeksan (Mt.) region of the Seodeukbong of the BaekduDaegan between May and October of 2007 are as follows. A total of 1,831 individuals of 71 bird species were observed in the study sites, and based on the average of the highest number of individuals, the most dominant species was the Brambling (Fringilla montifringilla) at 28.6 individuals (21.8%), followed by the Yellow-throated bunting (Emberiza elegans) at 13.5 individuals (10.3%), Long-tailed tit (Aegithalos caudatus) at 11.6 individuals (8.8%), Brown-eared bulbul (Hypsipetes amaurotis) at 7.6 individuals (5.8%), Marsh tit (Parus palustris) at 6.9 individuals (5.3%) and the Great tit (Parus major) at 6.5 individuals (5.0%). This was followed by the dominance, in decreasing order, of the Jay (Garrulus glandarius) at 5.7 individuals (4.4%), Siberian blue robin (Luscinia cyane) at 4.1 individuals (3.2%), Nuthatch (Sitta europaea) at 3.9 individuals (3.0%), Varied tit (Parus varius) at 3.6 individuals (2.8%), Crowned willow warbler (Phylloscopus occipitalis) at 3.5 individuals (2.7%) and Arctic warbler (Phylloscopus borealis) at 2.9 individuals (2.2%). It is predicted that there is a need to assess the importance of this region through continuous monitoring of the protected region of the BaekduDaegan.

Avifauna of Bangtaesan Mountain, Gangwon-do, Korea

An investigation on avifauna of the Bangtaesan Mountain was carried out from February until November, 2010 and it drew the results as follow. The number of birds observed in the whole Bangtaesan Mountain region was 989 individuals of 51 species (Maximum counts). Considering the results from literature research in addition, at least 90 species 1,000 individuals are thought to live in this region. In result, dominant species proved to be Yellow-throated Bunting (Emberiza elegans), Marsh Tit (Parus palustris), Azure-winged Magpie (Cyanopica cyana), Eastern Crowned Willow Warbler (Phylloscopus coronatus), Varied Tit (Parus varius), and more. Most of birds breeding in the forest of Korea were found to constitute these dominant bird species. Entire species diversity index appeared to be 3.35 relatively a high level; 3.34 in the south slopes while 3.22 in the north slopes showing relatively a high level in the south. Of them, 12 species including Mandarin Duck (Aixgalericulata) were the Protected Birds species nominated and protected by the Cultural Heritage Administration or the Ministry of Environment, while 10 and 6 species were the natural monument species and endangered species level, respectively. Should further consistent surveys be carried out, a broader range of species would be found to breed, and therefore the Bangtaesan Mountain region including the area where the protected species are observed is believed to need a conservation and management through protected area designation.

Breeding ecology of tits Parus spp. using artificial nest boxes in a coniferous forest over a five-year period

This study was conducted to clarify the breeding ecology of tits Parus spp. using artificial nest boxes with different entrance diameters in a coniferous forest at the Ansung Campus, Chung-Ang University from March through July, 2006 to 2010. A total of 42 breeding pairs, including varied tit Parus varius, marsh tit P. palustris, coal tit P. ater and great tit P. major utilized the artificial nest boxes during our study period. There were differences in preferred entrance diameter of artificial nest boxes for each species. The 30 mm artificial nest box entrance diameter was used most frequently. For each tit species, there were differences in first egg date, clutch size, brood size, egg incubation period, nestling care period and breeding success over the course of the study. Long-term ecological research is necessary to collect more data on environmental factors to be able to estimate their full consequences in terms of the breeding ecology of Parus spp.

Altitudinal Variation in Parental Provisioning of Nestling Varied Tits (Poecile varius)

We recorded parental provisioning rates of Varied Tits (Poecile various) at different altitudes (n = 17, 7, and 11 nest boxes at 300, 900, and 1,400 m, respectively) to examine if males and females cooperate in response to increased provisioning pressure due to nutritional demands of nestlings. Females provisioned nestlings more than males irrespective of altitude. Provisioning rates of males and females tended to increase with elevation, but the increase was greater for males. Provisioning was low early in the nestling period, and gradually increased reaching a peak between 9 and 10 days after hatching. The provisioning rate of females at the peak provisioning period (8–10 days) did not increase markedly at any altitude. Provisioning by males during the peak period increased and they contributed more during this period than at other times. The provisioning rate of males increased linearly with elevation. The provisioning rate of female Varied Tits also increased with elevation, but the increment ratio was lower than that of males. Changes in provisioning rates with elevation may be due to the need to invest more in parental care under unfavorable environmental conditions. Parents at high altitudes experience more difficulty provisioning, not only because of nestling growth, but also because provisioning is required more often. Thus, increased provisioning by males, which have a lower provisioning frequency relative to females, may be an investment to reduce foraging pressure on females and to ensure survival of nestlings.

Feeding a Foreign Chick: a Case of a Mixed Brood of Two Tit Species

Abstract We report on a mixed brood of Great (Parus major) and Varied (Poecile varius) tits. The brood consisted of one Great Tit and five Varied Tits. Incubation and food provisioning to nestlings were by adult Varied Tits, but not by adult Great Tits. The foreign Great Tit nestling tended to receive more food than the average Varied Tit nestling. Provisioning of the foreign Great Tit by Varied Tits lasted even after fledging. We discuss the causes and outcomes of this rare phenomenon.

The Using Rate of Breeding Birds by Artificial Nest Boxes Type at Orchard Area

We installed two types of artificial nest boxes, made by wood chip mixed with cement (A-type) and recycled styrofoam (B-type) at the orchard areas (Apple Research Institute) in Sobo-myeon, Gunwi-gun, Gyungbuk Province in march 2003. And then, the breeding birds using the nest boxes were recorded during the breeding season of 2003 and 2004 for finding the effectiveness of two different nest boxes. A total bred birds were five species, Great Tit (Parus major), Coal Tit (Parus ater), Varied Tit (Parus varius), Tree Sparrow (Passer montanus) and Yellow-rumped Flycatcher (Ficedula zanthopygia). Sixteen pairs Great tits were bred in the nest boxes, so this species was the most dominant breeder and followed by Coal Tit three pairs, Varied Tit three pairs, Tree Sparrow two pairs and Yellow-rumped Flycatcher two pairs. The using rate of nest boxes was 28.2% (11 out of 39) and 38.5% (15 out of 39) in 2003 and 2004, respectively. Thus, the using rate was increased in 2004. Birds were using only A-type nest boxes, so the using rate of A-type was 68.0% (17 out of 25) while none of bird used B-type (0 out of 14). From this result, the breeding bird showed preference for better nest boxes (A-type) when there were abundant breeding sites.

Avifauna of Manisan (Mt.) in Ganghwado

In June and September of 2009, a total of 179 individuals of 25 species, 14 families and 6 orders were found in the region of Manisan (Mt.) of Ganghwado (island). Dominant species included Aegithalos caudatus (20.11%, 36 individuals), Hypsipetes amaurotis (15.08%, 27 individuals), Parus palustris (10.06%, 18 individuals), Parus major (6.70%, 12 individuals), Parus varius (6.15%, 11 individuals), Pica pica (5.59%, 10 individuals) and more. In the 1st survey (June), a total of 108 individuals of 22 species were recorded, and in the 2nd survey (September), a total of 112 individuals of 17 species were recorded. The 1st survey, which showed a higher number of species, showed higher species diversity (2.70) and species richness (4.49) than those of the 2nd survey.

Breeding Bird Community of the Ogawa Forest Reserve, an Old-Growth Deciduous Forest in Central Japan

The breeding bird community of the Ogawa Forest Reserve (OFR), an old-growth deciduous forest in central Japan, was surveyed and compared with those of similar forests on Honshu, the largest island of Japan. Of the 63 bird species observed, 51 were potential breeders within the OFR, and 31 of these had territories in the 12-ha study plot for at least 1 year during the 5 study years. Annual changes in the breeding community were small; the average total density was 491 pairs per 100 ha and the average number of species was 25.6. The Great Tit Parus major was the dominant breeding species, followed by the Willow Tit P. montanus, Narcissus Flycatcher Ficedula narcissina, Coal Tit P. ater, Varied Tit P. varius, and Ashy Minivet Pericrocotus divaricatus, a national red-listed species. Some local red-listed species, such as the Brown Flycatcher Muscicapa dauurica and White-backed Woodpecker Dendrocopos leucotos were also common in the OFR. The results suggest that the OFR harbors a breeding bird community similar to its original status. Cluster and ordination analyses indicated that the avifauna of the OFR was characterized more by the elevation than by the geographic location and thus represents the original bird species diversity of the low-montane beech forests of Honshu. As low-montane areas of Japan have been degraded in recent decades, the OFR provides a valuable indicator of bird species biodiversity for sustainable forest management.

The role of the varied tit, Parus varius T. and S., in the seed dispersal of Japanese yew, Taxus cuspidata S. and Z

The role of the varied tit, Parus varius T. and S., in the seed dispersal of Japanese yew, Taxus cuspidata S. and Z

Prey distribution, foliage structure, and foraging behavior of insectivorous birds in two oak species (Quercus serrata and Q. variabilis)

AbstractWe examined foraging behaviors of four insectivorous bird species (Great Tit Parus major, Varied Tit P. varius, Long‐tailed Tit Aegithalos caudatus and Japanese White‐eye Zosterops japonica) on the two oak species (Q. serrata and Q. variabilis) in relation to fine‐scale foliage structures, abundance, and distribution of folivorous insects and physical and chemical characteristics of leaves. There was no difference in the mean number of insects for each oak species, but there was a significant difference in the mean biomass. The distance from twigs or branches to leaf tips or blade‐petiole junctions showed that leaves of Q. variabilis were more dispersed than those of Q. serrata. The different size distribution of insects influenced insect sizes selected and foraging maneuvers used by each bird species. Parus major and P.varius fed on beetles (low energy gain) with perch‐gleaning (the most energy‐saving maneuver) from the upper side of leaves on Q. variabilis, whereas they fed on large lepidopteran larvae (high energy gain) from the lower side of leaves on Q. serrata using a variety of maneuvers (including energy‐consuming ones). Both A. caudatus and Z. japonica fed on insects from the lower side of leaves by hang‐gleaning and reach‐gleaning, respectively. These species appeared to be morphologically adapted to the energy‐consuming but more effective maneuvers used to take preys from the undersides of leaves. We hypothesize that differences in foliage structures between closely related species of trees have evolved as a balance between defense against folivorous insects and attraction of insectivorous birds.