Ploughing Depth Research Articles

Above Ground Emergence and Floristic Composition of Weeds in Relation to Tillage and Weed Management Practices in Maize and Cowpea

Background: Weeds are one of the most important elements influencing crop productivity. Tillage practices have a significant effect on the weed seed bank and the appearance of weeds, both of which have a direct impact on farm productivity. Different tillage strategies based on ploughing depth, as well as weed control practices, change the dynamics of weed seeds in the soil. This research will aid in the development of integrated weed control methods by investigating the interaction between tillage and weed management practices. Methods: Field trials were carried out in two seasons, Summer and Kharif 2022, using a split-plot design with three tillage methods and four weed management practices. The treatments were replicated three times. Result: Among the different tillage treatments Mouldboard plough fb Cultivator fb Rotovator recorded the lowest weed density. With respect to weed management methods, pre- and post-emergence herbicide application and hand weeding at 20 and 40 DAS recorded the lower weed density. Interaction effects of tillage and weed management practices resulted in lower weed density in Mouldboard plough fb Cultivator fb Rotovator with herbicide application and Mouldboard plough fb Cultivator fb Rotovator with hand weeding. Highest weed density was recorded under Cultivator fb Rotovator in unweeded control. With respect to relative density, among the broad-leaved weeds (BLW) Trianthema portulacastrum and Dactyloctenium aegyptium in grasses dominated among the weed species in 30 and 60 DAS respectively. From the present study it was concluded that the Mouldboard plough fb Cultivator fb Rotovator with hand weeding twice or herbicide application reduces the weed emergence from the soil weed seed bank.

The effect of plowing depth and distance between the two beds of furrows opener developed under different tillage systems on some soil physiology and sunflower crop growth

Abstract:
 The research was conducted in clayey loamy soil using two plowing systems (T1 chisel) and (T2 moldboard) and three depths of plowing D (10, 20, 30 cm) and three spacing between the two plates of each of the furrows opener (40, 50, 60 cm). ) to study the effect of the developed furrows opener on the physical properties of the soil (bulk density and porosity) and the growth characteristics of the sunflower crop (plant height, , productivity,)
 The furrows opener, when used after the moldboard plow, gave the highest height and the maximum quantity of the total seed yield of the plant, while the three mentioned traits recorded the highest increase at the maximum depth of the stalk (30 cm) and the largest spacing between the boards (60 cm) between the two plates of each of the three The furrows opener weapons, and the traits were affected (Plant height and total seed yield) were significantly affected by the bilateral and triple interactions between the study factors (tillage systems, machine depth, and the distance between the two plates) .While it affected some of the physical soil characteristics represented by the bulk density of the soil and the total porosity of the soil, the sander recorded a decrease in the apparent soil density when used after the chisel plow, and also decreased with the increase in the depth of the machine and with the increase of the inter-distance between the boards of furrow opener, while the bilateral interference was recorded between systems Tillage and tillage depth had a significant effect, while the binary interactions between (tillage regimes spacing between the boards, plow depth, and spacing between the boards) and the triple interaction between the study factors (tillage regimes, plow depth, and spacing between the boards) had no significant effect on bulk density. The developed plow excelled when used after the chisel plow by recording the highest total porosity, which increased with increasing the depth of the machine and increasing the inter-distance, while the bilateral interference between the tillage systems and the depth of the machine had a significant effect, while the bilateral interactions between (the tillage systems and the inter-distance, the depth of the machine and the inter-distance ) and the triple overlap between the study factors (tillage systems, machine depth and spacing between the boards) any significant effect on the total porosity of the soil.
 Keywords: plowing systems, the depth of the machine (the depth of plowing), the distance between the furrow opener plates.

Study of the effect developed chisel plow on some energy requirements and some soil properties in a clayey mixture soil

The experiment was conducted at the fields of the College of Agriculture - University of Basra to study the effect height of sweeps shank equipped with the developed chisel plow (10 and 20 cm), with three depths (15, 25 and 35 cm) and three lateral distance (20, 25 and 30 m), on the field performance indicators of the draft force and the area of loosened soil. In a mixed alluvial soil with a density of (1.25) g-cm3 and a moisture content of (15.17) %, the experiment was designed according to the randomized complete block design (RCBD).
 The drafting force increased when the lateral distance and plowing depths increased, while it decreased when the arms of the sweeps shank increased by 20 cm. The loosened area increased when the plowing depths and the lateral distance increased when the arms of the duck hind legs were 10 cm high. The highest drafting force recorded at the height of the arms of the sweeps shank20 cm, the distance between them 30 cm, and the plowing depth 35 cm. The highest loosened area recorded at the height of the arms of the sweeps shank10 cm and the depth of plowing 35 cm.

Effects of ploughing depth variations on maize (Zea mays) growth: a study at Nyankpala in the Northern Region of Ghana

This study evaluated the effect of different ploughing depths on maize (Zea mays) growth at Nyankpala in the Northern Region of Ghana. Plant height, leaf count, and stem girth were measured at no-plough (NT), 10-20 cm (PD20), and 20-30 cm (PD30) depths. Soil bulk density and texture were also determined for NT, PD20, and PD30. Plant data were evaluated using one-way analysis of variance in GENSTAT statistical program, and the means were separated with the least significant difference (LSD) at p<0.05. The results revealed significant differences between the various depths of ploughing, with the best maize growth characteristics recorded under PD30, followed by PD20 and finally, NT. The PD30 had nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium (NPK) contents of 0.24 %, 6.08 mg/kg, and 58 mg/kg, respectively, followed by NT with NPK contents of 0.13 %, 5.23 mg/kg, and 46 mg/kg, respectively. The bulk density of the soil decreased with increasing ploughing depth. From the results, the study recommends a plough depth of about 20-30 cm for maize production in the study area and other regions with similar physical soil properties and agronomic practices.

Design and Testing of an Automatic Strip-Till Machine for Conservation Tillage of Corn

Successive years of straw mulching and returning straw to the fields in Northeast China have made strip-tillage necessary, and reasonable strip-tillage operations can create conditions for crop growth. However, there are limited research studies on the related equipment applicable to this area. In this paper, an automatic control strip-tillage machine is designed. According to the conventional planting pattern of maize in this region, the operative processes of the machine were determined, and a suitable strip seedbed structure could then be constructed under straw mulching conditions. The type of coulters and the structural parameters of the V-type soil-crushing wheel were determined through theoretical analysis. Based on the air spring and electric linear actuator, the plowing depth control system and the straw width control system were developed, respectively, so as to improve the stability of the machine operation. Field tests showed that when the forward speed, tillage depth, and theoretical width were 6–12 km/h, 6–12 cm, and 18–24 cm, respectively, the straw clearing rate, soil crushing rate, and tillage depth and breadth stability were higher than 90%, and the soil flatness was less than 2 cm. All the indexes satisfied the agronomic and technological requirements of corn cultivation. The results of this study can provide equipment and technical support for the further popularization of conservation tillage technology.

Field Performance Evaluation of a New Tillage System

This study was conducted to evaluate the field performance of the new tillage machine in silty clay soil, which consists of two subsoiler plows, a rotary plow, and two opener furrows, and their effect on some mechanical and field indicators, which included: draft force, mean weight diameter and field efficiency. Three depths of plowing were used(30, 40, and 50 cm), two rotational speeds for the rotary plow blades are(250 and 300 rpm), and three distances between two plates of the two opener furrows are(35, 40 and 45 cm). The results showed an increase in the draft force with an increase in the plowing depth from 30 to 50 cm, a decrease in the rotational speed of the rotary plow from 300 to 250 rpm, and an increase in the distance between two plates of the two opener furrows from 30 to 40 cm. The mean weight diameter was decreased when using shallow plowing with a depth of 30 cm compared to deeper plowing with a depth of 50 cm and with an increase in the rotational speed of the rotary plow blades from 250 to 300 rpm. As for field efficiency, the highest average was recorded for shallow plowing at a depth of 30 cm, a high rotational speed of 300 rpm, and the small distance between two plates of the two opener furrows of 35 cm was 73.28, 69.12, and 68.39%, respectively. Keywords: Plowing depth, Rotational speed, Mean weight diameter, Draft force, Field efficiency

Research on a Hydraulic Cylinder Pressure Control Method for Efficient Traction Operation in Electro-Hydraulic Hitch System of Electric Tractors

The tractor is the primary power device of the agricultural production process. For the problem that the traditional electro-hydraulic hitch control method for tractors cannot simultaneously meet the requirements of maintaining a constant ploughing depth and improving traction performance and electric tractor overall efficiency, this paper proposes a hydraulic cylinder pressure control method of the electro-hydraulic hitch system for electric tractors. We establish a tractor-implement system dynamic model, calculate the rear axle load of the tractor in real-time according to the actual working parameters under the premise of ensuring the constant ploughing depth, construct a traction performance objective optimization function, and use the genetic algorithm to solve the optimal hydraulic cylinder pressure value of the electro-hydraulic hitch system. Hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) simulation results show that the electric tractor under the traditional position control method and the hydraulic cylinder pressure control method has an average wheel slip of 18.50% and 16.93%, an average traction efficiency of 71.35% and 73.08%, and an average overall efficiency of 50.81% and 52.40%. The hydraulic cylinder pressure control method proposed in this paper reduces the wheel slip by 9.27%, increases the traction efficiency by 2.42%, improves the electric tractor overall efficiency by 3.13%, and reduces the electric tractor overall energy loss by 7.67% compared with the traditional position-control method. Therefore, the hydraulic cylinder pressure control method of the electro-hydraulic hitch system proposed in this paper can achieve the purpose of effectively improving tractor traction performance and reducing tractor energy loss while maintaining a constant ploughing depth. This study offers technological references for electric tractors to improve traction performance and reduce the overall energy loss of electric tractors.

Modelling Salvia sclarea L. yields depending on plants spacing, mineral fertilisers and depth of ploughing in the irrigated conditions of cold Steppe zone

Ukraine has favourable natural conditions for the cultivation of medicinal and aromatic plants, but there is a lack of scientific knowledge and practical guidelines for their cultivation. Clary sage is a valuable and prospective crop for the South of Ukraine and deserves special attention. This study is aimed to investigate theoretical mechanisms of clary sage productivity formation on the irrigated lands of the Southern Ukraine. The experimental basis for the study is the data on crop inflorescence yields, collected during field investigation of clary sage cultivation technology in the dripirrigated lands of the Kherson Oblast during 2013-2018. Theoretical study on the yield formation depending on the cultivation technology elements was performed through rank correlation and heteroscedasticity analyses, while the mathematical model for the crop yield prediction was developed using multiple regression. As a result, the null hypothesis about the influence of the factors studied on crop yields was denied according to the Breusch-Pagan and Glejser tests, although the results of the analysis of variances revealed no significant effect of the depth of the plough and the spacing of the crop on the yields. Rank correlation analysis revealed that the highest influence on crop yield is attributed to phosphorus fertilisers. In addition, information on the influence of each agrotechnological factor on the yield of clary sage was determined, namely: 1 kg of nitrogen fertilisers applied per ha reduces the yield by 6.34 kg; 1 kg of phosphorus fertilisers applied per ha increases the yield by 156.44 kg; 1 extra cm of row spacing reduces the yield by 3.33 kg; 1 cm deeper ploughing improves the yield by 56.56 kg. The model has moderate fitting quality (correlation coefficient 0.5885) and reasonably good yield prediction accuracy (mean absolute percentage error 24.12%). The study has no analogues in Ukraine or in the world and provides novel theoretical and practical insights on the formation of clary sage productivity in the cold Steppe zone

Analysis of the stress affecting the cutting knives locally manufactured in the moldboard plough with the measurement of some of the indicators studied

The study was conducted in a theoretical part, using the finite element method and the main stresses and safety coefficients were adopted on the sliding and disk knives, which are among the auxiliary parts in the work of the moldboard plough. The second part is the field evaluation of performance evaluation of the plough through three factors: cutting knives the sliding knife, the disk knife and without a knife, two levels of moisture content 9.73 % and 16.22 %, and two ploughing depths 15-20 and 25-30 cm. The following indicators were studied: drawbar capacity, fuel consumption, and percentage For slippage, vertical deviation and lateral deviation, the results showed that the subtractive plough without the cutting knife recorded the highest values of the drawbar capacity and vertical deviation, however the plough with sliding knife achieved the lowest values for the indicators which mentioned, the moisture content 16.22% recorded the lowest significant value for each of the drawbar ability and the percentage of slippage and deviation Lateral. Increaseing plough depths achieved the highest value of traction power, fuel consumption, percentage of slippage and lateral deviation, and the overlap between the plough with the sliding cutting knife and the ploughing depth of 15-20 cm achieved the least significant value for the traction ability, and also the overlap for the depth of 15-20 cm with the disk knife plough had the lowest fuel consumption.

THE COMBINED EFFECT OF THE TILLAGE DEPTH AND COMPOST APPLICATION ON CALCAREOUS SOIL AGGREGATES AND THE YIELD OF INTERCROPPED FABA BEAN WITH WHEAT

Calcareous soils crusting and low organic matter (OM) content are key problems restrict their management and productivity. The aim of this study is to assess the role of tillage at different depths along with the compost application for improving some characteristics of the calcareous soil as well as the yield, and its components of the intercropped faba bean with wheat (1:1 ratio). A field experiment was carried out at the Nubaryia Agricultural Experimental Station through the two successive winter seasons (2019/2020) and (2020/2021) in a split-plot design with three replicates. The main factor (F1) was the plough depth treatments: Chisel plough (20 cm depth) and subsoiler (40 cm depth) one time and twice. The sub-factor (F2) was the applied compost (C1= 5.95 and C2= 11.9 tons ha-1). A control without additions was involved. The wheat and fababean were sown in a 1:1 intercropping ratio mixed with the surface layers by hatchat under a surface irrigation system and the recommended agronomic practices were followed. The tillage treatments combined with increasing the rate of the applied compost have increased the total stable aggregates (TSA), the aggregation index and aggregation degree in the surface and subsurface soil layers (0 – 20 cm, 20 – 40 cm) as well as the saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ks) for both seasons. The water stable aggregates (WSA) distribution revealed that the 8-2 cm aggregates are the abundant size especially in the surface soil layers. The 40 cm depth subsoiler twice treatment combined with the compost rate C2 resulted in the maximum OM for both seasons. The relative maximum OM increase (%) compared to the corresponding control was by 32.3 and 26.7% in the 0 – 20 cm soil layer and by 64.9 snd 60.0% in the 20 – 40 cm soil layer. For the compost rate C2, the most significant relative increase in the wheat grains yield (kg ha-1) was by 74.8% with the plowing two times at 40 cm depth, while for the faba bean seeds yield (kg ha-1) it increased by 145.5% with the 20 cm depth plowing. The studied treatments were effective for improving the calcareous soil properties and productivity.

Field management of Phelipanche ramosa on tomatoes by plowing depth or resistance strategies

Two separate independent experiments were carried out on agronomic approaches for controlling infestation by Phelipanche ramosa: the evaluation of two soil plowing depths (30 and 50 cm) and determining the resistance of two tomato cultivars (SV5197 and SV8840) to this parasitic plant. The experiments were performed in 2014 and 2018 seasons in naturally heavily infested fields in the province of Foggia (Apulia Region, south-eastern Italy). Based on our results, the 50 cm moldboard plowing depth reduced parasite infestation by 41.2% compared to that of 30 cm depth, commonly adopted by local farmers. Higher attachments to the host plants were observed in SV5197 than in SV8840, which could be correlated with the different level of resistance of the host plant. In both experiments, the highest Phelipanche infestation reduced the tomato yield but did not affect the fruit quality.

Impact of fertilizer source on the dynamics of carbon and nutrients in a podzol designated for land‐use conversion

AbstractBoreal lands have long been considered unsuitable for agriculture. Climate change projections support a shift towards increased agricultural production in boreal ecosystems via land use conversion. Depending on the conversion protocol, the new plough layer may variably reflect the properties of different soil depths. This study assessed how adding mineral or organic fertilizer sources to distinct soil layers within ploughing depth (0–15 cm [topsoil] or 15–30 cm [subsoil]) affects nutrient uptake and crop productivity. Locally relevant organic waste fertilizers (dairy manure [DMN], recirculating aquaculture system supernatant [SUP] and slurry [RAS]), were compared against mineral fertilizer. Tall fescue was used to verify agronomic responses. Starting available nutrient concentrations were balanced as necessary with mineral N and P fertilizers. Except for NH4‐nitrogen, both soils were of apparent similar fertility (total C < 1%); unfertilized, neither could support significant plant growth. Subsoil‐based growth was fast but limited in time reflecting immediately available nutrients. Topsoil led to delayed, extended growth. This might be due to dichotomous priming effects: during the duration of the experiment up to 36% of subsoil carbon was lost, while the topsoil gained up to 49% carbon, most apparent for DMN. While RAS led to the greatest N and P acquisition efficiencies for topsoil, it had no such effect for subsoil, suggesting distinct fixation and mineralization processes. Dissimilar C cycling and nutrient acquisition for the two soil depths indicates that site‐specific considerations that include soil health parameters with commonly tested available nutrients are needed where podzols are farmed after land‐use conversion.

Effect of Tillage Depths and Addition of Organic Acids on some Physical Properties and Yield of Wheat (Triticum eastvum L.)

The experiment was carried out in the field at the first research station (Al Bandar) affiliated to the College of Agriculture - University of Al-Muthanna, 5 km from the center of the city of Samawah during the agricultural season 2021-2022 in order to study the effect of plowing depth and the addition of organic acid based on the physical properties in soil and wheat yield (Triticum eastvum L.) The experiment was designed as a factorial on the basis of a split plot design and in (R.C.B.D) design. The experiment included two factors. The first factor was the plowing depths that included three levels of plowing depths (8, 16 and 24) cm and symbolized by (D1, D2, and D3) respectively. The second was the addition of humic and fulvic organic acids, which included five levels (0, 10, 20, 30, 40) liters H-1 and symbolized by H0, H1, H2, H3, and H4 in sequence, subsequently the land was divided into experimental units, and 45 experimental units contained three Sectors, which included the area of one experimental unit (2×2) m2. 8 lines, each 2 m in length, were spaced 20 cm apart to make up the experimental unit, the distance between 75 cm was left between one repeater and another. Then the harvest stage was on 22/4/2022, and the yield was measured The moisture content, apparent and real density, porosity, and grain yield, and the results showed the following: the addition of organic acids at a level of 40 liters of H-1 (H4) affected the reduction of the bulk density (1.277) g.cm-3 and increased the soil moisture (40.56%) and the porosity (51.25%) while it exceeded the level of 30 liters H-1 (H3). ) in the grain yield amounted to (5,489) mcg ha-1. The depth of plowing affected, as the depth D1 exceeded (8) cm in reducing the bulk density (1.276) and the porosity increased (51.21)%, while the depth D3 (24) cm exceeded in the moisture content (36.87), while the depth of (16) cm exceeded D2 in The grain yield reached (5.571) mcg ha-1 The interactions between the added organic fertilizers H3 and the depth of tillage D2 significantly affected the increase in grain yield, which amounted to 5.519 mcg ha-1.

Battery Electric Tractor Powertrain Component Sizing With Respect To Energy Consumption, Driving Patterns and Performance Evaluation Using Traction Motor

In this paper sizing the powertrain of battery electric tractor (BET) including major farming implements are investigated for various real world driving patterns. Powertrain components are modelled using torque-load characteristics which are function of speed, acceleration, plowing implement and depth of plowing and texture of the soil. Effect of load variations on powertrain performance and energy consumption are also explained in detail. In this powertrain design major farming implements like chisel plough, mould board plough, field cultivator, sweep plough are considered. Tractor hauling a trailer carrying goods with 2000 kg weight is also considered for powertrain design. Typical operating velocities of 18, 15 and 25 kmph are taken for sand, tillage and asphalt surfaces respectively for tractor trailer applications and 7 kmph for plowing applications. The dynamic model of the powertrain is modelled in MATLAB/SIMULINK. PMSM is selected as a traction motor and its performance is evaluated in MATLAB/SIMULINK. Same has been verified using real-time Hardware in loop (HIL) simulator with help of OPAL-RT (OP5700).

Research on Control Strategy of Electro-Hydraulic Lifting System Based on AMESim and MATLAB

Given the influence of flow instability, parameter uncertainty, and unpredictable disturbances in electro-hydraulic lifting systems, high-precision position control for electro-hydraulic lifting systems is challenging to achieve. This study proposes an observer–sliding mode control strategy to improve the control accuracy of the tractor electro-hydraulic lifting system. Firstly, the principle of the electro-hydraulic hoisting system is analyzed. Secondly, a mathematical model of the electro-hydraulic hoisting system is established, and the electro-hydraulic hoisting system is reduced to design an observer to achieve a real-time evaluation of the unknown system state and disturbance. The observer and the sliding mode control are then integrated into a controller to improve system response. Theoretical analysis demonstrates that the controller ensures that the actuator can achieve the desired control effect even under disturbing effects. Finally, a joint AMESim–MATLAB simulation and conducting pilot studies are carried out to compare the observer–sliding mode control with PID (Proportion–Integral–Derivative) control and sliding mode control. At the same time, in the process of the simulation and test, the symmetric structure as the electro-hydraulic lifting system was used to build a ploughing depth simulation system (changes in the hydraulic cylinder thrust simulate changes in ploughing depth values). The results show that the proposed observer–sliding mode control strategy can achieve a better position and pressure tracking and parameter change robustness than PID control and sliding mode control.

Дослідження експлуатаційно-технологічних показників роботи орних агрегатів, обладнаних передплужниками

Goal. Determination of the influence of plow front plows on its traction resistance and operational and technological indicators of the plow unit and the transverse profile of the surface of the plowed field. Methods. Theoretical studies were carried out using the main provisions of the theory of agricultural machines, theoretical mechanics and higher mathematics. The corresponding calculations were carried out on a PC in the Mathcad 15.0 software environment, and their graphic interpretation was implemented using the Grapher 20 editor. The physical objects of the experimental research were plowing machine-tractor units based on the KhTZ-16131 tractor, which was aggregated with plows PLN-5-35, PNB-5-40 and PNYA-4-42. The first of these plowing tools was equipped with a device for measuring traction resistance. Results. The impact of the use of plowing implements with front plows, angle cutters and second-level bodies (two-tier plow) on the statistical characteristics of the plowing depth, the width of the unit, the longitudinal profile of the field and the traction resistance of the plow was studied. Conclusions. The use of plowing implements with front plows, angle cutters or second-tier housings ensures homogeneity of variances of plowing depth fluctuations. On the other hand, the use of a plow without front plows installed on it leads to a natural and significant increase in the dispersion of fluctuations in the depth of soil cultivation and the transverse profile of the field. The normalized correlation function of this process is characterized by the presence of a significantly pronounced periodic component. Under the condition of using a plow without front plows installed on it, the period of this component practically corresponds to the working width of the plow implement. The use of front plows with a collapse angle of 25° determines its deforming effect on the soil environment in the form of detachment, not shear. As a result, this provides a statistically significant and, moreover, natural reduction in the traction resistance of the plow. For plow tool PLN-5-35 in the conditions of experimental studies, this reduction was 1.1 kN or 3.3%.

Reduction in Energy Consumption Due to Modernized Cultivation Aggregates

The article presents the effect of using a tillage tool with skimmers, second stage skimmers, and bodies (double-deck plow) on the reduction of traction resistance and energy consumption by at least 1.1 kN, i.e., 3.3%. In addition, the statistical characteristics of the plowing depth and the width of the longitudinal profile of the field are stabilized. The use of agricultural machinery with skimmers, secondary skimmers, or bodies ensures even distribution of plowing depth fluctuations. The use of a plow without skimmers mounted on it leads to a regular and significant increase in the spread of fluctuations in the working depth and cross-section of the field. The normalized correlation function of this process is characterized by the presence of a noticeably marked periodic component. When the plow is used without skimmers mounted on it, the working period of the unit practically corresponds to the working width of the tillage tool. The use of skimmers with a grinding angle of 25° causes its deformation in the soil environment, which results in stratification, not shearing. This ensures a statistically significant and regular decrease in the traction resistance of the plow.

AN IMAGE PROCESSING APPROACH FOR MONITORING SOIL PLOWING BASED ON DRONE RGB IMAGES

Soil tillage is a crucial stage in growing plants. Plant roots need soil cavities with good aeration which is obtained from an excellent soil-plowing process. Controlling the quality of plowing process should be done quickly and precisely since it affects the planting schedule and seed handling in the field. Monitoring the plowing area using drone is the best way since it has low-cost operations and is easy to operate. Most drones used today are equipped with a CMOS camera sensor that produces RGB images with good resolution. This study tries to maximize these RGB images to analyze the plowing area and plowing depth using the vegetative indices formulas and GLCM function. Vari formula is the best vegetive indices compared with VIgreen and GLI formula that can be used to distinguish plowed and unplowed areas in this study. The segmentation algorithm which was developed in this study can detect the plowing area. Based on the test, the segmentation algorithm can detect the plowed area, and the results have been compared with manual observation. The correlation coefficient (r) between the result of the segmentation algorithm and manual observation is 0.77. The composition of RGB in each pixel influences the algorithm’s performance to distinguish the plowed and unplowed areas. However, the GLCM function is not strong enough to estimate the plowing depth because the correlation coefficient is very weak. © 2017 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Results of experimental studies of the plow for coupling with drawbar category 3 tractors

BACKGROUND: For the cultivation of agricultural crops, the technology of basic dump tillage is widely used. More than 40% of energy resources are spent on it, due to the traction resistance of the working bodies of general-purpose plows. The technological process of plowing with such bodies has not changed much historically. Pruning of the soil layer is carried out with a ploughshare, crumbling and turning are carried out with a blade, the stability of the movement of the body is provided by a landside plate. At the same time, the resistance of a landside plate accounts for up to 20% of the total component of the traction resistance of the plow body. To reduce the traction resistance, the plow body without a landside plate has been developed in the Saratov State Agrarian University.
 AIMS: Determination of towing and operational characteristics of the PBS-5M ploughshare for coupling with drawbar category 3 tractors and operation on heavy loamy soils.
 METHODS: The experiments were carried out on the field, cultivated with a disk harrow after winter barley harvesting, in Novokubansky district of Krasnodar Region. The 030 cm soil layer had moisture ranged from 16.4 to 19.7% and hardness ranged from 1.86 to 2.74 MPa. The mass of plant and crop residues on the site averaged 185 g/m2, and the average height of weed plants was 10.8 cm.
 RESULTS: The towing and operational characteristics of the plowing unit, consisting of a serial T-150K drawbar category 3 tractor and an experimental PBS-5M plow, have been determined. The experiments were carried out for two variants of the plow. The first variant has the five-body configuration of the plow with the working grip width of 2.83 m and the plowing depth of 22 cm. The second variant has the four-body configuration of the plow with the working grip width of 2.27 m and the plowing depth of 30 cm. The driving mode of the first variant of the T-150K+PBS-5M unit varied in the operating velocity range from 7.27 to 9.2 km/h, the driving mode of the second variant of the unit was with the operating velocity up to 5.72 km/h. The energy intensity of the five-body plow was determined, corresponding to the traction and power characteristics of a drawbar category 3 tractor with a small power reserve of 2.87%. The PBS-5M four-body plow requires the power, almost equal to the operational power of the T-150K tractor engine.
 CONCLUSIONS: As a result of experimental studies of the T-150K+PBS-5M plowing unit when processing the field, cultivated with a disk harrow after winter barley harvesting, it was found that the plow can be coupled with tractors of drawbar category 3. The reasonable mode of operation of the plow with the five-body configuration is provided at the velocity of 78 km/h and the plowing depth of 2122 cm. The output during the main operation time of the unit was 2.12.3 ha/h, the fuel consumption was 12.912.7 kg/ha. The specific energy consumption of the unit was 47.546.78 kWh/ha, and the specific energy consumption of the plow was 31.2631.4 kWh/ha. The engine load with the track skidding of 6.99.7% was 7886%. With increasing unit velocity and increasing plowing depth, the values of the specific energy consumption of the unit and the plow raise as well. In field studies, it was found that it is necessary to use the tractor of higher drawbar category in order to couple the plow for the velocity up to 10 km/h and the plowing depth up to 30 cm in these agrotechnical conditions.

LANDUSE FEATURES IN A MOUNTAIN AREA AND THEIR EFFECTS ON THE PROCESS OF SYLVATISATION (STRYY DISTRICT LVIV REGION)

The Skole District that is nowadays a part of newly established Stryy District (Lviv Region) is entirely situated within the range of the Ukrainian Carpathians. Its area encompasses the Skolivsli Beskydy and the Stryy-San Highland physiographic regions featuring a dominance of considerably high altitudes above sea level, terrain disarticulation, and afforestation. Establishing new villages alongside rural population’s natural increase and land reforms (the capitalist stage of land use (after the abolition of serfdom in 1848) and Soviet stage of land use) called for respective increase in agricultural lands. Forested lands in the Ukrainian Carpathians were the source for such an increase therefore cropland and pasture lands were emerging from deforestation. Harsh weather conditions and low soil fertility significantly impacted the further agricultural land uses in the mountainous region. However, wide-scale decline of agricultural lands occurred in the period of the collapse of the former USSR due to decline of collective and state farms. As a result of denationalization with subsequent privatization of agricultural lands there are nowadays 31 303 land owners and land users in the study area, 97,54 % of which are physical persons. At the same time, despite such remarkable figures citizens share less than a half of total lands for agriculture, residential and construction purposes, whilst the state forestry enterprises are using 51,11 % (75 173,50 ha) in total. In contrast to lowlands, animal farming and husbandry in the Skole District is held exclusively by households. In recent years local animal husbandry is experiencing the livestock decline that leads to certain reduction in the share of both hay meadows and pasturelands. Thus, from 2009 to 2016 the total area of fodder lands in the district decreased by 65 ha (ca. 0,2 % of total privately owned agricultural lands). I assume that ongoing land reform will cause further increase in fallows in the Skole District. In order to better comprehend the processes of spontaneous reforestation (sylvatisation) in a mountain region (the Pohartsi boundary, Koziova village, Stryi district, Lviv regionthe ) four study plots were selected representing the successional sequence: forest → pasture → hay meadow → arable lands. The study showed that areas that were previously used for pasture and were not plowed, are restored to their natural state much faster. These areas are characterized by satisfactory physical, physico-chemical and biotic properties. The decrease in acidity towards the neutral side is explained by an increase in the activity of catalase and urease by approximately 1.5 times. In connection with the developed grass cover, slightly higher nitrogen values were recorded in the upper soil horizon. Due to the absence of a regular annual supply to the base and replenishment of its nutrient reserves due to precipitation and waste of dead phytomass, the content of humus in the upper horizon of the base is half as much as under forest biogeocenoses. Plowing (overturning the lower horizons to the mountain, and vice versa) is a very strong anthropogenic factor, which leads to the almost complete destruction of natural vegetation on the cultivated area and a radical change in the main properties of the soil cover. According to some indicators: physical (total sparability), physico-chemical (nitrogen nitrate and ammonia), biotic (urease, catalase, biomass of microorganisms) in the upper humus horizons were even somewhat close to anthropogenically unaltered ecosystems. However, the changes in the indicators of the density of the soil structure and its solid phase corresponded to the depth of plowing. And the humus content was several times lower than under forest biogeocenoses. Areas that were not plowed in the past are restored due to the main rock of the region Picea abies (L.) Karst.. Areas that were devastated in the past are recovering much more slowly. Such areas begin to overgrow with Alnus incana (L.) Moench., Rosa canina L., Bеtula and others Key words: land use; land owners and land users; fallows; agricultural lands; mountainous region; Skolivski Beskydy.