Playmate Preferences Research Articles

Playmate Preferences and Perceptions of Individual Differences Among Typically Developing Preschoolers

The purpose of this study was to describe preschoolers’ playmate preferences and perceptions of classmates with and without disabilities using a peer rating task and a corresponding teacher rating scale. Participants consisted of 34 typically developing preschoolers ranging in age from 42 to 69 months and 5 classroom teachers. Although preschoolers with disabilities received lower sociometric ratings than their typically developing peers, the reasons children cited for selecting or rejecting their peers with disabilities were essentially the same as those given for nondisabled children. In dyads In which one child had disabilities and the other did not, teachers reported that approximately 50% preferred not to play with each other, whereas reciprocal nonpreference was reported to occur in only 21 % of dyads in which both partners were typically developing. The proportions of mutual playmate preferences in the two types of dyads were roughly equivalent, suggesting that children with disabilities are capable of forming mutual friendships, but may be at increased risk for developing negative peer relationships.

Brief report: preschoolers' social preferences for interacting with peers with physical differences.

Investigated preschoolers' playmate preferences for line drawings of a physically normal child, one with a facial scar, one wearing a leg brace, and one sitting in a wheelchair for several contexts: classroom, eating, reading, television, and playground. Difference in preferences for age, gender, ethnic group, and context were investigated. No gender differences were found. African American children were more accepting of a child seated in a wheelchair than Caucasian children. Very young children had limited understanding of the impairments. Also, the children were less likely to express preferences for the children with orthopedic impairments for the playground context. Interventions involving typically developing children and peers with impairments in play that does not require motor activity may enhance the acceptance of children with orthopedic impairments.

Preschoolers' reasons for accepting peers with and without disabilities

Little is known about preschoolers' reasons for wanting or not wanting to interact with age peers with disabilities. This question was examined in two studies using different methods. In Study 1, preschoolers ranked their preferences and provided reasons for wanting to play with one of three Playmobil figures presented with scripts representing a typically developing child, one with an orthopedic impairment, and one with cognitive impairment. In Study 2, while viewing photographs, preschoolers explained their reasons for playmate preferences for classmates with and without disabilities. Results from Study 1 indicated that preschoolers preferred to play with and made more positive comments about the typical child than the other two. Findings for Study 2 showed that preschoolers made more liking comments about same gender typical children. Females made disliking comments about males with and without disabilities, whom they considered aggressive. Males made disliking comments about males with disabilities whom they perceived as aggressive. Results from these two studies suggest that views of preschool classmates with disabilities may not always be positive; therefore, interventions, such as cooperative activities, may be necessary to enhance the positive effects of inclusion.

Early hormonal influences on childhood sex-typed activity and playmate preferences: Implications for the development of sexual orientation.

Early hormones have been hypothesized to influence both sexual orientation and related childhood sex-type behaviors. This study examined hormonal influences on activity and playmate preferences in children with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) age 2.5 to 12 years (24 girls, 19 boys) and their relatives (16 girls, 25 boys). CAH girls preferred boys' toys and activities. They also had greater preference for boy playmates than controls, but this was largely attributable to 4 girls. CAH boys did not differ significantly from controls. Activity and playmate preferences were not related. It was concluded that early androgen has a major effect on childhood activity preferences but only a weak influence on playmate preferences; sex segregation does not arise from sex-typed activity preferences; activity and playmate preferences may be differently predictive of sexual orientation; and hormonal influences on sexual orientation are likely to be complex

Early hormonal influences on childhood sex-typed activity and playmate preferences: Implications for the development of sexual orientation.

Early hormonal influences on childhood sex-typed activity and playmate preferences: Implications for the development of sexual orientation.

The stability of individual differences in gender typing: Implications for understanding gender segregation

The stability of individual differences has important implications for understanding the origins of gender-typed behaviors. For example, if some children have a stronger preference for same-sex playmates (gender segregation) than do others, then exploring characteristics that may differentiate these children from their peers (e.g., preference for gender-typed toys or teacher proximity) should prove fruitful. Otherwise, research might be focused more appropriately on group-level processes or situational factors rather than individual differences. In the current study, 57 2 1/2- to 3-year-olds from middle-class Canadian homes were observed repeatedly during free play at their preschools. Four aspects of gender typing (gender segregation, use of masculine and feminine gender-typed toys, teacher proximity) were measured so that the stability of individual differences and relations among the measures could be assessed. Stable individual differences were found for all four measures among boys, and for two of the measures (feminine toy play, teacher proximity) among girls. In addition, boys who played most frequently with masculine toys rarely were observed in proximity to the teacher. However, there was no relation between gender segregation and the other indices of gender typing.

Gender‐typing1 in young children: Preferences, behaviour and cultural differences

One hundred and sixty‐one 4‐4 1/2‐year‐old children (82 girls and 79 boys) from Cambridge (UK) and Budapest (Hungary) participated in a cross‐cultural study of the processes of gender differentiation. Children were individually interviewed to assess toy preference, awareness of stereotypes and sex‐role preference. Focal child observations were carried out during free play in preschool (120 observation periods over eight separate 30‐minute sessions per child). Behavioural categories included activities, use of specified toys, sex of playmates, and social interactions with peers and teachers. Variables which differentiated girls and boys were summed within each category to give sex‐typical measures.Girls and boys scored in the expected direction on the several measures, but girls in both locations were less stereotyped than boys in their toy and sex‐role preference. Intercorrelations among the gender‐typing measures were stronger for ‘masculine’ variables than for ‘feminine’ ones. Further, play activities and toys were more clearly differentiated than social interactions. Consistent with previous studies, relations between measures of gender‐typing were at most moderate, supporting a multidimensional approach. In contrast to previous reports, we found short‐term individual stability of same‐sex preference and contrary to expectations, sex‐ segregation was not related to sex‐differentiated behavioural styles. Comparing the samples, there were no differences in toy, sex‐role, or playmate preference, but Budapest children were significantly more ‘masculine’ and less ‘feminine’ on the behavioural measures.

Preschoolers select playmates on the basis of gender and race

Behavioral measures and playmate preferences were observed in all 90 children enrolled in an urban preschool. Patterns of play activities, social involvement, verbalization, and positive and negative acts were similar for boys and girls and black, white, and foreign-born Asian racial groups. Overall, all groups of children preferred playing dyadically with same-sex classmates. Girls showed a relative preference for same-race/same-sex playmates and greater relative avoidance for white boys than black or Asian boys. Boys showed a relative preference for white- race/same-sex playmates and least relative avoidance for same-race girls. The results with girls contradict implications from the racial attitudes literature. The overall pattern of results was explained on the basis of the interaction of two factors: children's responses to the higher status of white boys and the perceived physical attraction of same-race children.

Social-Cognitive Play Behaviors and Playmate Preferences in Same-Age and Mixed-Age Classrooms Over a 6-Month Period

Social and cognitive modes of play were observed in two mixed-age classrooms of 3- and 4-year-olds, two classrooms of 3-year-olds, and two classrooms of 4-year-olds during the fall and again 6 months later in the spring. Observations were conducted during twelve 5-minute sessions at Times 1 and 2. Analysis revealed that there were significant age differences in the play behaviors of children in the same-age but not in the mixed-age classrooms. Three-year-olds in the two sets of classrooms differed on parallel-dramatic, cooperative-dramatic, solitary-manipulative, and cooperative-constructive play; 4-year-olds in the two classroom arrangements differed on solitary-dramatic, cooperative-dramatic, cooperative-constructive, and parallel-manipulative play. Few significant changes were observed in children’s play in either set of classrooms. There was greater gender segregation in same-age classrooms and little age segregation in mixed-age classrooms. The data are discussed with respect to early childhood education practice.

Social-Cognitive Play Behaviors and Playmate Preferences in Same-Age and Mixed-Age Classrooms over a 6-Month Period

Social-Cognitive Play Behaviors and Playmate Preferences in Same-Age and Mixed-Age Classrooms over a 6-Month Period

Toddler peer interaction in mixed-age groups

Toddler preference for different age playmates was investigated. Thirty toddlers, aged 16 to 23 months, were observed in family day care homes. Each subject had access to both same-age and older peers. Results indicate that toddlers preferred 2-year-olds compared to same-age peers. Toddlers watched preschoolers more often than same-age peers. Toddlers also used more imitation and language in their play with 2-year-olds compared to other age peers. Features of the caregiving environment were also assessed. Higher levels of arousal and motion were associated with more elaborate peer interaction. These findings support the notion that partner age and the caregiving environment can influence toddler social interaction.

Same- and cross-sex friends: Implications for interaction and social skills

Sex cleavages in toddler peer groups were investigated in two studies. In the first study, playmate preferences and initiations and responses to friends were examined. Three types of initiations and their responses were examined during the free play of 46 toddlers in day care centers. A preference for same-sex playmates was strongest in the oldest girls. Boys tended to ignore or refuse girls' initiations when the initiations took the form of specific requests to play a game compared with a more general approach. Friendships tended to be made with members of the same sex. However, children having same- and opposite-sex friends were less likely to initiate and respond to friends on the basis of sex. Children with fewer same-sex preferences initiated more games. In the second study, cross-sex friendships in 329 early toddlers, late toddlers, and preschool children were examined. Some children in all age groups had cross-sex friends, but the number decreased with age. Children with cross-sex friends appeared more socially skilled than children without cross-sex friends.

Ethnic, gender, and age preferences among deaf and hearing preschool peers.

The present study concerns ethnic, age, and gender playmate preferences of deaf and hearing preschoolers who were observed during outdoor free play at their respective schools over a 7-month period. Hispanic, black, and white children were included. It was hypothesized that peer preferences would be less apparent among deaf children than among hearing children if these preferences were based on (a) language differences between ethnic groups (e.g., Spanish-English differences), age groups (e.g., verbal fluency differences), or gender groups; or (b) cultural values communicated by speech. Both deaf and hearing children preferred to play with children of the same ethnicity, gender, and age as themselves. In addition, play among children of the same ethnicity, gender, and age was qualitatively different from play among children of different ethnicity, gender, and age. The only effect of deafness was to decrease the amount of gender segregation that occurred. The results suggest that the development of ethnic, gender, and age playmate preferences is not dependent on intergroup language differences or spoken cultural messages. Several nonlinguistic factors that might contribute to early peer preferences are discussed.

Behavioral treatment of deviant sex-role behaviors in a male child.

This study demonstrated reinforcement control over pronounced feminine behaviors in a male child who had been psychologically evaluated as manifesting "childhood cross-gender identity". The clinical history of the subject paralleled the retrospective reports of adult transsexuals, including (a) cross-gender clothing preferences, (b) actual or imaginal use of cosmetic articles, (c) feminine behavior mannerisms, (d) aversion to masculine activities, coupled with preference for girl playmates and feminine activities, (e) preference for female role, (f) feminine voice inflection and predominantly feminine content in speech, and (g) verbal statements about the desire or preference to be a girl. The subject was treated sequentially in the clinic and home environments by his mother, trained to be his therapist. The mother was taught to reinforce masculine behaviors and to extinguish feminine behaviors, by using social reinforcement in the clinic and a token reinforcement procedure in the home. During this treatment, his feminine behaviors sharply decreased and masculine behavior increased. The treatment effects were found to be largely response-specific and stimulus-specific; consequently, it was necessary to strengthen more than one masculine behavior and weaken several feminine behaviors, in both clinic and home settings. A multiple-baseline intrasubject design was used to ensure both replication and identification of relevant treatment variables. Follow-up data three years after the treatment began suggests that the boy's sex-typed behaviors have become normalized. This study suggests a preliminary step toward correcting pathological sex-role development in boys, which may provide a basis for the primary prevention of adult transsexualism or similar adult sex-role deviation.

The behavioral treatment of a "transsexual" preadolescent boy.

Behavioral treatment procedures were developed to suppress feminine sex-typed behaviors and to increase masculine sex-typed behaviors in an 8-year-old boy with “childhood cross-gender identity.” The boy's clinical history paralleled the retrospective reports of adult transsexuals, including (1) feminine voice inflection and predominantly feminine content in speech, (2) verbal self-reference as “sissy” and “fag” and statements about his preference to be a girl, (3) feminine hand and arm gestures and “swishy” gait, (4) an aversion to masculine play activities, (5) a strong preference for girl playmates and taking a feminine role in play and role-playing, and (6) improvised cross-dressing. With a multiple-baseline intrasubject design across stimulus environments and across behaviors, the subject was treated sequentially in the clinic, at home, and in the school. The boy's mother was trained to administer a token economy program in the home, and the school teacher was taught to apply a response-cost procedure in the classroom. The initial treatment effects were found to be largely response specific and stimulus specific, necessitating treatment for a number of behaviors in the three major environments. Followup data 12 months after treatment termination suggest that the boy's sex-typed behaviors have become essentially normalized. This treatment holds promise for correcting pathological gender identity development in boys and for relieving the associated emotional adjustment problems.

COMPANION CHOICE BEHAVIOR IN THE KINDERGARTEN

The purpose of this study was to determine whether or not the sociometric choices of kindergarten children correspond with preferences manifested in actual play associations; and to study the stability of these two types of choice over a period of time. Experimental evidence relating to the sociometric choices of preschool children is incomplete. Budden (3) analyzed verbal choices by preschool children solely in terms of choice consistency, and made no attempt to compare sociometric responses with actual behavior preferences. F. Moreno (13) used an exclusion technique, in which the favorite companion of a particular child (as determined by observation) was removed from the playground. The behavior of the remaining member of the pair was then observed to determine his secondary preferences. No attempt was made to elicit verbally expressed preferences in this study. Hagman (8) featured a modified verbal choice technique in which the child was encouraged to pick celluloid fish out of a bowl to be given to his friends. These choice data were then compared with time sampling data of actual behavior preferences. No clear-cut relationships appeared between the two types of data. However, Hagman took time samples over a period of several months, and there is the possibility that the playmate preferences of the children in her study might have changed several times during that period. Thus, the time sampling data yielded information as to long-time trends, while the sociometric choices might have reflected at-the-moment preferences. Koch (io) and Lippitt (1i) obtained sociometric choices by using the paired comparisons technique, and they compared these choices with observational data as to actual preferences. However, the tendency of the children in these studies to choose the last name in each pair reduced the consistency between reversed similar pairs to as low as 50 per cent, which suggests that the authenticity of the paired comparison choices may be questioned. Thus, it can be seen that at present, information as to the nature of the sociometric choices of preschool children is lacking. The present investigation was conducted in an attempt to correct the deficiencies of previous studies in this area of social behavior.