Plastination Technique Research Articles

A quantitative evaluation of color changes occurring in the muscle tissue during the stages of S10 silicone plastination technique

There are many preservation techniques that are used to ensure that the changes (odor, color, and elasticity) in the characteristics of the animal or human bodies after death are minimized in the field of anatomy. One of the most modern anatomic specimen preparation methods is the plastination technique. Therefore, primary plastination stages were applied to the muscle tissue in this study. The aim of the current study is to present color changes in muscle tissue quantitatively by using a colorimeter device in every stage of the standard silicone plastination technique until the last product is obtained. Color analyses were performed on the muscle tissue after each stage of the plastination. Throughout the whole process, it was observed that the stage when the value of color change from green to red in the product was the closest to the fresh tissue was the 1st acetone bath. The value of color change from blue to yellow was closest to the fresh tissue at the gas curing and hardening stage. Furthermore, the closest values to the fresh tissue were recorded after the impregnation stage when the variations in plastinates were evaluated in terms of brightness. Color changes in plastinates, which have been described as close to the natural color up to today, were determined through statistical data in this study. Moreover, as a result of this dissertation, it was asserted that colorimeter can be effectively used in the field of anatomy due to the advantages it holds.

PLASTINATION, THE IDEAL METHOD TO PRESERVE SURGICAL SPECIMENS IN ORAL PATHOLOGY

<h3>Background</h3> Plastination is a procedure created in 1977 by anatomist Gunther von Hagens at the University of Heidelberg in Germany and it aims to preserve biological tissue specimens. This technique is based on the substitution of body fluids (water, lipids) by polymers that allow indefinite material preservation, without damaging its structure and rendering easy manipulation for further study. <h3>Objective</h3> The S-10 plastination technique was applied on 13 surgical specimens obtained from a private oral pathology service. <h3>Methods</h3> The histologic diagnoses for the 13 surgical samples were ameloblastoma, myxoma, and osteomyelitis. These samples were fixed and preserved in 10% formalin. Surgical specimens were dimensionally measured and photographs were taken before and after the S-10 plastination procedure. Processing includes fixation, cleansing, dehydration, impregnation, precuring, and curing. After plastination, 3-dimensional tomography reconstruction was made to compare features before and after S-10 plastination. <h3>Results</h3> The 13 preserved surgical specimens were obtained using the S-10 plastination technique. Cone beam computed tomography was acquired for the 3-dimensional reconstruction and imaging description. Finally, descriptive sheets from each surgical specimen were elaborated. The latter will function as didactic material. <h3>Conclusions</h3> The plastination technique allows the direct handling of surgical specimens without jeopardizing their structure. Another relevant advantage is that the preserved specimens might be used as didactic material to show diverse lesions and to observe their macroscopic features with full detail. Moreover, this technique allows permanent storage of the specimens without using polluting materials.

Anatomical basis of the support of fibula to tibial plateau and its clinical significance

BackgroundThe fibula is only indirectly involved in the composition of the human knee joint and has therefore been neglected in the research on knee osteoarthritis. Nonuniform settlement of the proximal tibia plateau is clinically defined as when the height of the medial tibial plateau is lower than that of the lateral side in medial compartment knee osteoarthritis (KOA). The non-uniform settlement of the proximal tibia plateau may be caused by fibular support on the lateral side. Orthopedic surgeons practice partial fibulectomy based on the clinical manifestation of nonuniform settlement, and this technique has been shown to reduce pain and improve function in patients with medial compartment KOA. However, this hypothesis of the mechanism of nonuniform settlement lacks an anatomical basis.MethodsThe P45 polyester plastination technique was used to prepare sections of the proximal tibiofibular joint to investigate the distribution of the bone trabeculae in the region of the lateral tibial plateau.ResultsThere was uneven distribution of trabeculae in the lateral condyle of the tibia and the head and neck of the fibula. The fibula and the posterolateral cortex of the shaft of the tibia united to form an arch beam via the tibiofibular joint. Many thick, dense trabeculae were present in a longitudinal direction above the tibiofibular arch.ConclusionsThe fibula supports the lateral tibial plateau, and the trabeculae were concentrated above the tibiofibular arch.

Medial and lateral canthal ligaments shown in P45 sheet plastination and dissection.

Purpose:Ocular suspensory ligament is an important part of the lower eyelid retractors. However, there is a scarcity of studies examining detailed en-block histologies of ocular suspensory ligaments.Methods:In this study, we included the cadavers of Chinese adults as subjects. These cadavers of Chinese adults were processed using P45 plastination techniques. The polymer resulted in transparent plastination, and the P45 sheet-plastinated sections of the lower eyelid were observed. The gross anatomy results of three Chinese adult heads (six hemifaces) were included as gross dissection data. All photographic documentation was performed via a Canon EOS 7D Mark camera.Results:The results showed that the inferior rectus muscle, inferior oblique muscle, ocular suspensory ligament, and its arcuate expansion are under the eyeball. The medial and lateral parts of the ocular suspensory ligament end at the medial and lateral canthal ligament. The middle part, a hammock-like shape, is slightly lower. The ocular suspensory ligament holds up the inferior oblique muscle, inferior rectus muscle, and the eyeball. As the inferior oblique muscle passes through the sheath of the inferior rectus, the fascia is thickened, forming the ocular suspensory ligament. The ocular suspensory ligament connects to the intermuscular septum, the inferior tarsal muscle, and the medial and lateral check ligaments.Conclusion:This study observed the ocular suspensory ligament and arcuate expansion through P45 sheet plastination for the first time and identified the distribution of the lower eyelid ligaments, thus laying the foundation for further research.

Examination of pelvic anatomy by section plastination technique

Objectives: The aim of this study was to provide long-term preservation of the pelvic coronal cross-sections using plastination technique. Thus, we intended to provide a better understanding of the three-dimensional anatomy of the pelvis for education and research purposes. Methods: The standard plastination method was combined with the section plastination technique. The coronal pelvis sections of 8mm thickness were passed through the plastination stages. At these stages, unlike the techniques in the literature, surgical aspirator was used for cleaning the surfaces of the sections and xylene was used for lightening the plastinates. Results: At the end of the plastination stages, the sections preserved the real color and texture extremely well. Sections were dry, odorless, hygienic and could be handled without special precaution. Moreover, anatomical details were very clear and understandable, so that any structure could be measured photogrammetrically. Conclusion: Examination of the pelvic anatomy with coronal sections via plastination method could be very effectively used in education and research. In this way, a technological and up-to-date innovation can be provided for the development and understanding of three-dimensional anatomy. Real examination of cross-sectional anatomy instead of virtual radiological images can provide a useful and effective tool for both students and researchers.

GENERAL FEATURES OF CARIES PATHOGENESIS IN THIRD MOLARS AND AUTOIMMUNE DISEASES

This article presents a literature review, the results of the analysis of random samples of third molars removed for various clinical indications (11 samples). The teeth samples were analyzed visually, then their coronal parts were treated with epoxy plastination technique and prepared polished sections were studied microscopically. The analyzed data demonstrate the pathogenesis of fissure caries in our samples studied can be explained in terms of the direct virulent effect of pathogenic bacteria on the organic matter in the superficial dentin and basal enamel with the formation of auto antigens, which, as a result of sensitization of the local immune system, become the initial source of the carious process spreading to other teeth. This gives grounds to identify it with the pathogenesis of autoimmune pathology. It has been established that carious damage to hard tissues on the smooth surfaces of the dental crown begins with the pulp, when it is vital, and stops as a result of its tissue degeneration. It has been shown that a single latent damage to the hard dental tissues is the initial manifestation of the latent stage of the carious process, while multiple defects indicate its further progression. As for the generally accepted classification of caries, according to which superficial, medium and deep caries are distinguished, then, in our opinion, they should be considered as stages of the further process of carious destruction of hard dental tissues. We can suggest the study of the pathogenesis of carious lesions of third molars is necessary in order to prevent the occurrence of autoimmune diseases and increase the effectiveness of their treatment.

The influence of different sample preparation on mechanical properties of human iliotibial tract

In the run-up to biomechanical testing, fresh human tissue samples are often frozen in order to inhibit initial decomposition processes and to achieve a temporal independence of tissue acquisition from biomechanical testing. The aim of this study was to compare the mechanical properties of fresh tissue samples of the human iliotibial tract (IT) to fresh-frozen samples taken from the same IT and those modified with different concentrations of Dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO) prior to freezing. All samples were partial plastinated and destructive tensile tests were conducted with a uniaxial tensile test setup. A plastination technique already established in the laboratory was modified to improve the clamping behaviour of the samples. Material failure was caused by a gradual rupture of the load-bearing collagen fibre bundles. Contrary to our expectations, no significant difference was found between the tensile strength of fresh and fresh frozen specimens. The addition of 1 wt% DMSO did not increase the tensile strength compared to fresh-frozen samples; an addition of 10 wt% DMSO even resulted in a decrease. Based on our findings, the use of simple fresh-frozen specimens to determine the tensile strength is viable; however fresh specimens should be used to generate a complete property profile.

Development of a micro‐plastination protocol for morphological research

IntroductionUltrathin‐sheet plastination technique has been used to study microscopic details in anatomy. The aim of this study was to develop an ultra‐thin sheet plastination protocol in an induced model of osteoarthritis in rat humeral joint.Material and methodRat humeral joints, with osteoatrhitis, were used for this research. Sixteen weeks after osteoatrhitis induction, the animals were euthanized and injected with red epoxy resin through toracic aortha. Humeral joints and surrounded tissue were fixed in 10 % formalin. Samples were submitted to the plastination technique. The first step was dehydration during ten days, with acetone (100 %) at −25 °C. Later, for degreased, samples were inmerse in methylene chloride at room temperature during one week. Forced impregnation, the most important step in plastination, was peformed inside a stove with vacuum chamber. The plastinated blocks were cutted with a low speed band saw, with a diamond saw blade. Slices were placed in curing chambers to achieve polymerization and final transparentation.ResultsWe obtained slices of humeral joint of 230 μm thick, in which articular cartilage characteristic osteoarthritis morphological changes, including neovascularization, were observed.DiscussionUltra‐thin sheet Plastination is generally not used as a methodology for the identification of morphological changes caused by pathologies. However, we have applied this technique to identify the changes caused by osteoarthritis in the humeral joint of rats, as tjhe invasion of blood vessels in subchondral bone.ConclusionUltra‐thin sheet plastination technique was a methodology that can be used for the identification, measurement and comparison of morphological modifications caused by various pathologies, including osteoarthritis.

Isopropyl Alcohol and Methylene Chloride as Alternatives for pre‐plastination Dehydration and Defatting processes

Plastination as a technique creates durable, long lasting, realistic specimens with a high value in anatomy teaching and research. While the original protocol using Acetone has shown great results, the use of this substance is restricted in some countries due to socioeconomical or governmental limitations. The aim of this work is to develop a protocol in which acetone has been replaced as a dehydration and defatting medium.Three groups of specimens were procured. Each of them had a sample of abdominal organs with varying fragility (kidney‐liver‐small intestine), skeletal muscle and brain tissue. Group 1 and 2 (G1–G2) were previously fixated with formaldehyde 4%, while group 3 (G3) was preserved in a glycerin‐based formaldehyde free solution. A conventional plastination technique was carried out including fixation, dehydration, defatting, forced impregnation and curing.All groups were fixated with formaldehyde 10%, although G3 required cleansing with a 50% ethylic alcohol (EA) solution to remove the glycerin. G1 was dehydrated and defatted with EA. G2 &amp; G3 were dehydrated with isopropyl alcohol (IA), and defatted with methylene chloride (MC). All groups were impregnated in low temperatures with 1% S3–S10 Biodur silicone‐cross linker mixture. Finally, curing was divided in two steps, passive curing for 6 months and S6 cross linking. The specimens were analyzed based on tissue retraction, color degradation, morphological alterations and final specimen pliability.G1 showed maximum tissue shrinkage, morphological alteration and color degradation acquiring a brownish tone. G2 &amp; G3 suffered less tissue retraction, color degradation was minimal, morphological alteration was not observed. Specimen pliability remained the same across the three groups, specific tissues such as skeletal muscle, blood vessels and intestine were more pliable.Lesser tissue retraction and increased color preservation were obtained with the use of IA and MC for dehydration and defatting, compared with exclusive use of EA for both steps. Specimens previously preserved with glycerin‐based formaldehyde free solutions where successfully plastinated with this technique.While this study serves as a proof of concept that IA and MC are viable substitutes for Acetone in the dehydration and defatting steps, the lack of objective measurements and a control group with acetone are strong limitations of this study. Future studies with a higher number of standardized specimens and controls are needed to determine the impact of the proposed replacement in the plastination protocol.

Plastinated macroparasites, an alternative resource for use in practical lessons.

The plastination technique is a recently developed option to preserve biological tissues widely used in human and veterinary anatomy. This process allows one to obtain real, safe, clean, dry, resistant and permanently stable material without any additional treatment or maintenance. All these advantages are associated with the rapid expansion of plastination during recent decades in a high number of educational institutions. However, the studies of parasite conservation through plastination are scarce, although the material obtained has a high quality, as prior references have shown. In this study, 141 students of veterinary medicine and pharmacy university degrees used, in a blind study, plastinated specimens (experimental group) or wet specimens (control group) during three consecutive practical sessions. Afterwards all the students completed anonymous questionnaires on both knowledge and satisfaction. The results demonstrated that plastinated parasites are a valid and satisfactory alternative to be used as a teaching/learning tool during practical lessons. Moreover, with regard to the knowledge of morphological structures, the results from the questionnaire of assimilated knowledge showed no differences between the use of plastinated and formaldehyde-preserved parasites.

Statistical Analysis of Shrinkage Levels of Human Brain Slices Preserved by Sheet Plastination Technique With Polyester Resin

Statistical Analysis of Shrinkage Levels of Human Brain Slices Preserved by Sheet Plastination Technique With Polyester Resin

El patrimonio anatómico y zootécnico de la Facultad de Veterinaria de la Universidad de Córdoba (España) y su función pedagógica

El origen de la colección del Museo de Anatomía Veterinaria, vinculada a la creación de la Escuela de Veterinaria de Córdoba en 1847, estuvo marcado por las ideas ilustradas y desde entonces se ha provisto de materiales que facilitaran la docencia. La consulta del Fondo Histórico del Archivo de la Facultad de Veterinaria ha permitido identificar numerosas piezas, gracias a las actas y libros de registro anotados por el director de la escuela, el profesor Enrique Martín Gutiérrez.Destaca un conjunto de maquetas clásticas, así como piezas del siglo XIX procedentes de los talleres de artistas como Auzoux o Landsberg. En la actualidad se trabaja con la técnica del plastinado, contando con un más que significativo número de animales y órganos. El museo se ha convertido en un referente que hoy continúa velando por la conservación de este patrimonio para la docencia y disfrute de los ciudadanos.

Room temperature/Corcoran/Dow Corning™-Silicone plastination process.

For 20years, the cold temperature/S10/von Hagens' plastination technique was used to preserve biological specimens without challenge. It became the "gold standard" for preservation of beautiful, dry biological specimens. Near the end of the 21st century, a group from the University of Michigan and environs and Dow Corning™, USA, combined silicone ingredients, similar to the von Hagens' plastination products, however in a different sequence. The new polymer (Cor-tech) was combined with the cross-linker to design the "impregnation mix" which would invade the cellular structure of the specimen and yet was stable at room temperature. Later, curing would be by application of the catalyst onto the impregnated specimen. This unique sequencing of products would become the "Room temperature/Dow Corning™/Corcoran-Silicone plastination technique." The results of this room temperature technique provided similar plastinates, beautiful and practical for demonstration, containing no toxic chemical residues and forever preserved. As the name implies, impregnation of this silicone mix could be done at room temperature, without having to be kept cold. Both processes (cold and room temperature) required the same four basic steps for plastination. As well, both processes used similar basic polymers and additives to produce plastinates. However, they were combined in a different sequence. Cold temperature combines polymer and catalyst/chain extender, which is not stable and therefore must be kept colder than -15°C, while room temperature combines polymer with cross-linker which is stable, and likely forever.

E12 technique: Conventional epoxy resin sheet plastination.

Epoxy plastination techniques were developed to obtain thin transparent body slices with high anatomical detail. This is facilitated because the plastinated tissue is transparent and the topography of the anatomical structures well preserved. For this reason, thin epoxy slices are currently used for research purposes in both macroscopic and microscopic studies. The protocol for the conventional epoxy technique (E12) follows the main steps of plastination-specimen preparation, dehydration, impregnation and curing/casting. Preparation begins with selection of the specimen, followed by freezing and slicing. Either fresh or fixed (embalmed) tissue is suitable for epoxy plastination, while slice thickness is kept between 1.5 and 3mm. Impregnation mixture is made of epoxy E12 resin plus E1 hardener (100ppw; 28ppw). This mixture is reactive and temperature sensitive, and for this reason, total impregnation time under vacuum at room laboratory temperature should not last for more than 20-24hr. Casting of impregnated slices is done in either flat chambers or by the so-called sandwich method in either fresh mixture or the one used for impregnation. Curing is completed at 40°C to allow a complete polymerization of the epoxy-mixture. After curing, slices can be photographed, scanned or used for anatomical study under screen negatoscope, magnification glass or fluorescent microscope. Based on epoxy sheet plastination, many anatomical papers have recent observations of and/or clarification of anatomical concepts in different areas of medical expertice.

Computed Tomography Scan and Polyester resin 40 Plastination Technique: Teaching Aids to Illustrate Anatomical Structure of Donkey Brain.

Computed Tomography Scan and Polyester resin 40 Plastination Technique: Teaching Aids to Illustrate Anatomical Structure of Donkey Brain.

History and development of plastination techniques.

Plastination was a game-changing invention for macroscopic anatomical preparation. The method yielded dry, odourless, tangible and durable specimens which allowed new exhibition and teaching set-ups and paved the way for sophisticated preparations and spectacular positioning of specimens. Despite the impact of the new method, there have been similar techniques in place before. Exsiccation techniques, polymer embeddings and specimen impregnation with hardening substances were earlier methods which already included the main concepts that were later combined and refined in plastination. S10 silicone plastination, the technique most commonly known and applied, was followed by plastination methods suitable for research and sectional anatomy teaching. Numerous variations of sheet plastination techniques allow research applications and new ways of presenting topographic relations and mesoscopic insights. Besides the development of plastination techniques in sensu stricto, related techniques had a renaissance with new applications and developments, including corrosion casting and diaphonization methods. This brief review shall provide a historical context of plastination including some anecdotal spotlights on the ideas and innovations that lead to nowadays plastination techniques.

Plastination of larger and massive specimens-With Silicone.

In 1977, plastination was unveiled, which replaced tissue fluid with a curable polymer. Today preservation via plastination of various animal and plant tissues, organs, and whole bodies is an extremely useful technique to display such and help educate vast arrays of both allied science students and the lay public across the planet. The diversity of applications of plastination techniques seems to be without limits. In fact, the only real limitation to plastination is one's imagination! The size of plastinates during the early years of plastination was comparatively small and dictated primarily by the size of the available plastination kettle/chamber, 35L Heidelberg plastination kettle (49cm H×34.5cm diam.). In the 1990s larger chambers were designed and slowly became available:150-210cm (long)×65-80cm (wide) and 83-92cm (high). Today a few large vacuum chambers are in service which will accommodate whole bodies of man and domestic or exotic animals. Today, at least two gigantic chambers are available to impregnate massive specimens. These are 3.5m×2m×1.5m (Dalian) and 4m×3m×2.2m (Guben). Also, the need for larger quantities of acetone and impregnationmix, not to mention the great increase in specimen preparation time, makes this a major investment. The "cold temperature process" is used to impregnate these massive creations. The roomtemperature technique could be used. The same four plastination steps are necessary for larger and massive specimens. Besides their tremendous size, the slippery silicone polymer is a reckoning force.

P40 polyester sheet plastination technique for brain and body slices: The vertical and horizontal flat chamber methods.

The P40 technique produces high-quality brain and body slices and is the user-friendliest of the polyester techniques. The P40 polyester technique follows the same classical steps for plastination. That is, preparation of the specimen, fixation (optional), dehydration by freeze substitution, forced impregnation and curing. Two methods used to prepare two different types of specimens, that is, brain slices and body slices are described. Each method has its own characteristics depending on the specimen type used. Brain slices were used to illustrate the vertical small chamber method while the body slices were used to illustrate the horizontal large chamber method. The brain slices obtained using P40 are of very good quality presenting good contrast between grey and white matter. The body slices are also of very good quality. The physical appearance of these slices makes them an exceptional instrument for diagnostic imaging and anatomical correlation. Body slices prepared with P40 retain the natural colour of the tissue and preserve the anatomical relationships.

Ultra-thin sectioning and grinding of epoxy plastinated tissue.

With classical sheet plastination techniques such as E12, the level and thickness of the freeze-cut sections decide on what is visible in the final sheet plastinated sections. However, there are other plastination techniques available where we can look for specific anatomical structures through the thickness of the tissue. These techniques include sectioning and grinding of plastinated tissue blocks or thick slices. The ultra-thin E12 technique, unlike the classic E12 technique, starts with the plastination of a large tissue block. High temperatures (30-60°C) facilitate the vacuum-forced impregnation by decreasing the viscosity of the E12 and increasing the vapour pressure of the intermediary solvent. By sectioning the cured tissue block with a diamond band saw plastinated sections with a thickness of <300μm can be obtained. The thickness of plastinated sections can be further reduced by grinding. Resulting sections of <100µm are suitable for histological staining and microscopic studies. Anatomical structures of interest in thick plastinate slices can be followed by variable manual grinding in a method referred to as Tissue Tracing Technique (TTT). In addition, the tissue thickness can be adapted to the transparency or darkness of tissue types in different regions of the same plastinated section. The aim of this study was to evaluate the advantages of techniques based on sectioning and grinding of plastinated tissue (E12 ultra-thin and TTT) compared to conventional sheet-forming techniques (E12).

Body donation trends at the Nelson R. Mandela School of Medicine, University of KwaZulu-Natal over a three-decade period (1988–2017): Implications for medical education

Dissection and prosection remain the gold standards for the teaching of anatomy to pre-clinical medical students around the world. This has made the practice of whole body donation the cornerstone of medical programmes. This study aims to determine the trends in body donation among South Africans and predict the best possible and realistic approach for the teaching of anatomy in the near future. Data from 696 cadavers donated during a three-decade period (1988–2017) were obtained from the files of the Discipline of Clinical Anatomy, University of KwaZulu-Natal South Africa. Data were analysed as percentages, mean ± standard deviation using Statistical package for social sciences version 24. Most bodies were donated in the first decade of this study (1988–1997). Family bequests through funeral services accounted for the majority of donations. Bodies were predominantly in the seventh decade of life (18.8%) and a larger proportion were males (61.6%). Bequests were found to be more among the whites (57.5%) than all the other races. The causes of death in donors were from a wide range of conditions. The study revealed that the trend in the practice of body donation in South Africa has been erratic, which makes it difficult to predict the number of bodies available for medical education. Alternative approaches to anatomy education such as plastination techniques and computational models need to be sought to ensure sound and uninterrupted medical programmes in South African schools.