Ginseng Plants Research Articles

Efficient Micropropagation of Genetically Stable Panax ginseng Meyer by Somatic Embryogenesis

Panax ginseng Meyer is a valuable medicinal crop. However, the species’ propagation is limited by its long reproductive cycle and low seed yield. The present study focused on P. ginseng plant regeneration via somatic embryogenesis and evaluated the genetic stability of regenerated plantlets. We assessed the effects of carbon source type and concentration on somatic embryo induction, maturation, and germination. Somatic embryogenesis was optimal in Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium supplemented with 5% sucrose; however, maturation peaked in 1/2 MS containing low concentrations of sucrose ranging from 1 to 2%. Germination and plant regeneration were optimal in germination medium supplemented with 2% sucrose based on high germination rates, efficient plantlet production, and balanced growth characteristics. Molecular marker analysis suggested that the genetic fidelity of the regenerated plants was comparable with that of the control. High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis showed that in vitro-grown roots (IGRs) accumulated more ginsenoside than those of the control, but the ginsenoside content of 2 year old IGRs was similar to that of the controls after acclimatization. Our study provides valuable insights into the optimization of genetically stable micropropagation and could promote the distribution of superior P. ginseng cultivars with high product yields and quality.

Optimization of Rare Ginsenosides and Antioxidant Activity Quality of Ginseng Jiaosu Based on Probiotic Strains and Fermentation Technology

The primary active components of plant ginseng are saponins, and rare saponins play a specific antitumor action. In this study, Lactobacillus that can efficiently transform rare saponins were screened as fermentation strains of ginseng enzymes. The fermentation process was optimized to investigate the changes in various biochemical indicators and antioxidant activities of the enzymes before and after fermentation. The results showed that Lactiplantibacillus plantarum had the highest conversion efficiency for diol saponins, among which the content of rare ginsenoside-CK increased by 256%. The optimum optimizing method was a 1 : 1 : 10 ratio of ginseng extract/concentrated apple juice/water, fermentation time of 16 days, initial pH of 6.0, fermentation temperature of 37°C, and sterilization amount of 1.0%. The contents of rare ginsenoside-Rh1, ginsenoside-F2, ginsenoside-Rg3, and ginsenoside-CK increased by 18.48%, 135.73%, 343.03%, and 441.80%, respectively, and the process was stable and controllable. After fermentation, the scavenging rates for hydroxyl radical, DPPH radical, and superoxide anion radical were increased by more than 9%, and new organic acids were produced. In general, this study established an efficient, stable, and controllable ginseng fermentation process to improve the rare saponin content and biological activity of ginseng enzymes, which can provide new ideas for traditional Chinese medicine and medicinal health food in China.

Potential of Medicago sativa and Perilla frutescens for overcoming the soil sickness caused by ginseng cultivation.

There are serious soil sickness in ginseng cultivation. Crop rotation is an effective agricultural management to improve soil sustainability and reduce soil sickness. To explore an appropriate ginseng rotation system, Medicago sativa (alfalfa) and Perilla frutescens (perilla) were planted on ginseng cultivation soil for 1 year to evaluate the improvement effect of both. Through chemical analysis and high-throughput sequencing technology, we found that after alfalfa and perilla cultivation for one-year, various nutrients and enzyme activities in ginseng cultivation soil were significantly improved. In addition, perilla significantly increased the diversity and richness of soil fungal communities. Cultivation of alfalfa and perilla significantly changed the composition of soil bacterial and fungal communities and significantly reduced the abundance of the potentially pathogenic fungi Ilyonectria. Further pot experiments also showed that the improved soil could significantly increase root activity of ginseng plant after two plants were planted. It should be noted that, unlike alfalfa, perilla decreased soil electrical conductivity, increased soil organic matter, soil urease, and may significantly improve the diversity and richness of soil fungal community. Moreover, in the pot experiment, the root fresh weight of ginseng cultured in perilla treated soil increased significantly. This study highlights that perilla may have better soil improvement effect than alfalfa and it has the potential to be used in the soil improvement of ginseng cultivation.

Biocontrol mechanisms of Bacillus velezensis against Fusarium oxysporum from Panax ginseng

Root rot caused by Fusarium oxysporum severely reduces ginseng root yield and quality, leading to large economic losses. Biological control has attracted extensive attention because it is safe, environmentally friendly, and sustainable. Screening for biocontrol strains to suppress soil-borne diseases is important for improving ginseng quality. A Bacillus velezensis strain was isolated from the forest rhizosphere of Pinus sylvestris could inhibited F. oxysporum in ginseng. To explore the strain’s biocontrol effects and mechanism of action against F. oxysporum, four treatments were established in pot experiments: no inoculation (CK), F. oxysporum inoculation (F), B. velezensis YW 17 (B), and mixed inoculation of B. velezensis and F. oxysporum (BF). After 4 months of cultivation, the ginseng plants in the F treatment grew more slowly, and the withering degree was most serious among all the treatments. The results from high-throughput sequencing showed that the relative abundance of Fusarium in the roots of the BF treatment was significantly lower than that of the F treatment. B. velezensis inoculation improved the relative abundance of other beneficial microorganisms in the ginseng rhizosphere, such as Arthrobacter and Mortierella. The experimental results indicated that YW17 had strong abilities to produce biofilms and IAA, and could colonize roots. The whole genome sequencing results showed that some genes (trpA-C, gatA) were involved in the synthesis of the plant growth-promoting hormone IAA and other genes (efp, hfq, epsA-O, spo0A, sinI/sinR, lysC, yjbB, flgK, fliD, srfABC) were involved in biofilm formation and root colonization. The results of whole genome sequencing showed that there are 18 gene clusters related to the synthesis of secondary metabolite with antifungal activities. In addition, some genes involved in the biosynthetic pathway of acetoin, such as ilvB and alsD, were also found. Based on the above results, we infer that B. velezensis YW17 could inhibit pathogenic F. oxysporum by secreting antifungal lipopeptides, proteins and volatile substances, thereby indirectly protecting ginseng from pathogenic fungal infections. These results indicated that B. velezensis could control ginseng root rot indirectly by regulating the root and rhizosphere microbial community structures and directly by secreting antifungal substances.

Cloning and functional analysis of the promoter of a UDP-glycosyltransferase gene from Panax quinquefolium L.

Pq3-O-UGT2 is a key UDP-glycosyltransferase gene in the ginsenoside biosynthesis pathway of Panax quinquefolium L. Functional analysis of promoter sequences plays an important role in understanding the regulation of functional gene expression. In this study, chromosome walking technology was used to isolate the 1399 bp sequence upstream of the ATG initiation codon of Pq3-O-UGT2. Bioinformatics analysis shows that the promoter sequence contains a large number of putative cis-acting elements responsive to exogenous and endogenous factors. The full-length promoter and six 5′ terminal truncations were fused with the GUS reporter gene to test their activities. The results of histochemical staining showed that a strong GUS activity were observed in flowers, siliques, leaves, stems and roots of transgenic Arabidopsis containing the full length Pq3-O-UGT2 promoter. Fluorometric assays showed that the highest enzyme activity is the full-length promoter with 4370 pmol 4-MU/min/mg protein, and the shortest promoter containing P-198::GUS with 45 pmol 4-MU/min/mg protein was sufficient to activate GUS expression. In addition, extended light, low temperatures, MeJA, ABA, NAA and GA3 were selected to investigate the Pq3-O-UGT2 promoter in response to abiotic stress and hormone treatment. The GUS activity of Pq3-O-UGT2 full-length promoter (P-1399) was 2.12 times that of the control plant after MeJA treatment, suggesting that P-1399 is a MeJA-inducible promoter. Furthermore, the assay results showed that ABA could extensively induce GUS expression in five 5′ truncated promoter transgenic plants, except P-198. These experimental results will help us to better explore the regulatory mechanisms in the promoter region of the Pq3-O-UGT2 gene and contribute to further studies of the molecular mechanisms of glycosylation in ginseng plants. The Pq3-O-UGT2 promoter was successfully cloned. Seven 5′ truncations could drive the expression of GUS gene in transgenic Arabidopsis plants and the full-length promoter is a MeJA-inducible promoter.

Ginsenosides and Biotic Stress Responses of Ginseng.

Ginsenosides are saponins that possess a sugar moiety attached to a hydrophobic aglycone triterpenoid. They have been widely studied for their various medicinal benefits, such as their neuroprotective and anti-cancer activities, but their role in the biology of ginseng plants has been much less widely documented. In the wild, ginsengs are slow-growing perennials with roots that can survive for approximately 30 years; thus, they need to defend themselves against many potential biotic stresses over many decades. Biotic stresses would be a major natural selection pressure and may at least partially explain why ginseng roots expend considerable resources in order to accumulate relatively large amounts of ginsenosides. Ginsenosides may provide ginseng with antimicrobial activity against pathogens, antifeedant activity against insects and other herbivores, and allelopathic activity against other plants. In addition, the interaction of ginseng with pathogenic and non-pathogenic microorganisms and their elicitors may trigger increases in different root ginsenosides and associated gene expression, although some pathogens may be able to suppress this behavior. While not covered in this review, ginsenosides also have roles in ginseng development and abiotic stress tolerance. This review shows that there is considerable evidence supporting ginsenosides as important elements of ginseng's defense against a variety of biotic stresses.

사이토카이닌과 에틸렌, 프로피코나졸 복합처리에 따른 고년근 인삼 생육 및 진세노사이드 함량 변화

Background: Korean ginseng (Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer) is recognized for its medicinal properties. Because ginseng is cultivated for 4 – 6 years in one place, the growing environment can affect ginseng growth. Specifically, root growth can be altered by plant hormones, which in turn, affects crop yields. Among plant hormones, cytokinin is known to increase secondary growth by promoting cambium cell division. In addition, ethylene and propiconazole can regulate root development. In this study, the effects and interactions of cytokinin, ethylene, and propiconazole on four-year-old ginseng plants were analyzed.BRMethods and Results: Ginseng plants were treated with each hormone every two weeks. Cytokinin (6-benzylaminopurine, 500 μM) was applied to the soil, and 100 nM of propiconazole or 100 μM of ethylene was applied in combination with cytokinin. Root width and weight, and ginsenoside content of each plant were the highest when cytokinin and propiconazole were applied together. The highest number of buds was observed under cytokinin treatment. However, no significant differences were observed in shoot growth, except for stem width.BRConclusions: The greatest effect on root development was observed when cytokinin and propiconazole were applied together, and ginsenoside content increased following hormone treatment.

The immunomodulatory role of withania somnifera (L.) dunal in inflammatory diseases.

Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal (Solanaceae) (also known as Ashwagandha) is a botanical drug that has been used for centuries to treat many chronic diseases like high blood pressure, arthritis, diabetes, Alzheimer's disease, and depression. As many botanical drugs, w. Somnifera possesses anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anticarinogenic, anti-diabetic, and anti-asthmatic properties. W. somnifera is often compared to the ginseng plant due to its ability to reduce stress, improve cognitive functions (e.g., memory), and promote a healthy immune system. It promotes immunomodulatory effects whose function is to balance the humoral and cellular responses of the adaptive immune system. The therapeutic effect of w. Somnifera is attributed to active ingredients like alkaloids, steroidal lactones (such as withanolides, withaferins), and steroidal saponins. Although w. Somnifera is safe and highly recommended for treating various diseases, the current knowledge and understanding of its operational mechanisms are limited. One of the proposed mechanisms states that w. Somnifera promotes cellular-mediated immunity or initiates chemical interactions that contribute to therapeutic effects. Withania somnifera has been shown to play a significant role in immunological diseases by modulating several cytokines, increasing T-cell proliferation and enhancing macrophages functions. In this review, we will discuss the latest therapeutic effects of w. Somnifera on a number of diseases through modulating immunological markers and which specific components of w. Somnifera induce these therapeutic activities. We will also focus on the chemical properties in w. Somnifera components and their immunomodulatory role in type 2 allergic diseases where type 2 inflammation is highly imbalanced.

Integrated Metabolome and Transcriptome Analysis Unveils the Underlying Molecular Response of Panax ginseng Plants to the Phytophthora cactorum Infection

Due to at least 3 years of cultivation, Panax ginseng (ginseng) is susceptible to being attacked by pathogens which severely affect its quality and yield. Compared with other diseases of ginseng, Phytophthora blight caused by Phytophthora cactorum (P. cactorum) can spread rapidly and destroy almost the entire plant of ginseng, such as leaves, stems, and roots. However, little research was focused on this area, and how P. cactorum affected the metabolic profile of ginseng is still obscure. In the current study, we conducted a comprehensive analysis of metabolomics and transcriptomics to compare the differences in health and P. cactorum-affected ginseng leaves and stems. Metabolome analysis revealed that 110 and 113 significant differential metabolites were observably disturbed separately in ginseng leaves and stems. Transcriptome analysis demonstrated that 6424 and 9508 genes had remarkable variation in ginseng leaves and stems. Using conjoint analysis, we also revealed the changes in pathways “Alanine, aspartate and glutamate metabolism”, “Glycine, serine and threonine metabolism”, and “Biosynthesis of unsaturated fatty acids” and “Plant hormone signal transduction” in ginseng response to the P. cactorum. The current work provides an overview of the alteration of metabolic profile and gene expression profiles in ginseng leaves and stems in response to P. cactorum affection, which may help to further screen out the mechanism of plant-pathogen interaction at the molecular level.

Protocol for efficient ginseng transformation

Panax ginseng is a major medicinal crop with pharmaceutical efficacy derived from ginsenoside metabolites. Despite its genome information, the inefficiency of ginseng transformation hinders the study of the molecular mechanism of ginseng plant metabolism. Thus, this protocol aimed to develop an easy and efficient system for ginseng transformation. We established a transformation system using ginseng callus cultured in a liquid medium, which has a higher rate compared with cotyledon explant. In addition, Agrobacterium tumefaciens has been used for plant transformation. Compared with the LBA4404 strain, C58C1 was inappropriate for ginseng transformation using ginseng callus. We induced and maintained calli in liquid medium and cut them into small pieces before infection. After infection, we selected calli that survived from the selection media until identification of newly growing cells. In β-glucuronidase (GUS) assay, the expression of the GUS gene was observed in cells that were newly generated from explants. We treated calli with 0.05 M of MgSO4 before infection. After MgSO4 pre-treatment, the transformation efficiency of growing cells around infected callus was increased than non-treated control. Moreover, we constructed and introduced a visible reporter RUBY system to easily identify transformed cells. Using this system, we could identify the cells by a red color with naked eyes. Based on our transformation protocol, the success rate has increased to 77.27% in surviving lines during selection culture. This stable ginseng transformation could facilitate the overexpression and knockout of ginseng lines for functional or synthetic biological studies. We re-designed the ginseng transformation protocol using ginseng calli for explant material, and MgSO4 pretreatment was conducted before Agrobacterium infection. RUBY reporter was successfully introduced in ginseng.

The relationship between shifts in the rhizosphere microbial community and root rot disease in a continuous cropping American ginseng system.

The root rot disease causes a great economic loss, and the disease severity usually increases as ginseng ages. However, it is still unclear whether the disease severity is related to changes in microorganisms during the entire growing stage of American ginseng. The present study examined the microbial community in the rhizosphere and the chemical properties of the soil in 1-4-year-old ginseng plants grown in different seasons at two different sites. Additionally, the study investigated ginseng plants' root rot disease index (DI). The results showed that the DI of ginseng increased 2.2 times in one sampling site and 4.7 times in another during the 4 years. With respect to the microbial community, the bacterial diversity increased with the seasons in the first, third, and fourth years but remained steady in the second year. The seasonal changing of relative abundances of bacteria and fungi showed the same trend in the first, third, and fourth years but not in the second year. Linear models revealed that the relative abundances of Blastococcus, Symbiobacterium, Goffeauzyma, Entoloma, Staphylotrichum, Gymnomyces, Hirsutella, Penicillium and Suillus spp. were negatively correlated with DI, while the relative abundance of Pandoraea, Rhizomicrobium, Hebeloma, Elaphomyces, Pseudeurotium, Fusarium, Geomyces, Polyscytalum, Remersonia, Rhizopus, Acremonium, Paraphaeosphaeria, Mortierella, and Metarhizium spp. were positively correlated with DI (P < 0.05). The Mantel test showed that soil chemical properties, including available nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, organic matter, and pH, were significantly correlated to microbial composition. The contents of available potassium and nitrogen were positively correlated with DI, while pH and organic matter were negatively correlated with DI. In summary, we can deduce that the second year is the key period for the shift of the American ginseng rhizosphere microbial community. Disease aggravation after the third year is related to the deterioration of the rhizosphere microecosystem.

Hyperspectral reflectance imaging for nondestructive evaluation of root rot in Korean ginseng (Panax ginseng Meyer).

Root rot of Panax ginseng caused by Cylindrocarpon destructans, a soil-borne fungus is typically diagnosed by frequently checking the ginseng plants or by evaluating soil pathogens in a farm, which is a time- and cost-intensive process. Because this disease causes huge economic losses to ginseng farmers, it is important to develop reliable and non-destructive techniques for early disease detection. In this study, we developed a non-destructive method for the early detection of root rot. For this, we used crop phenotyping and analyzed biochemical information collected using the HSI technique. Soil infected with root rot was divided into sterilized and infected groups and seeded with 1-year-old ginseng plants. HSI data were collected four times during weeks 7-10 after sowing. The spectral data were analyzed and the main wavelengths were extracted using partial least squares discriminant analysis. The average model accuracy was 84% in the visible/near-infrared region (29 main wavelengths) and 95% in the short-wave infrared (19 main wavelengths). These results indicated that root rot caused a decrease in nutrient absorption, leading to a decline in photosynthetic activity and the levels of carotenoids, starch, and sucrose. Wavelengths related to phenolic compounds can also be utilized for the early prediction of root rot. The technique presented in this study can be used for the early and timely detection of root rot in ginseng in a non-destructive manner.

Soil amendment with cow dung modifies the soil nutrition and microbiota to reduce the ginseng replanting problem.

Ginseng is a profitable crop worldwide; however, the ginseng replanting problem (GRP) is a major threat to its production. Soil amendment is a non-chemical method that is gaining popularity for alleviating continuous cropping obstacles, such as GRP. However, the impact of soil amendment with either cow dung or canola on GRP reduction and the associated soil microbiota remains unclear. In the present study, we evaluated the effect of soil amendment with cow dung, canola seed powder, and without amendment (control), on the survival of ginseng seedling transplants, the soil bacterial and fungal communities, and their associated metabolic functions. The results showed that cow dung increased ginseng seedling survival rate by 100 percent and had a remarkable positive effect on ginseng plant growth compared to control, whereas canola did not. Cow dung improved soil nutritional status in terms of pH, electrical conductivity, , total carbon, total phosphorus, and available phosphorus. The amplicon sequencing results using Illumina MiSeq showed that canola had the strongest negative effect in reducing soil bacterial and fungal diversity. On the other hand, cow dung stimulated beneficial soil microbes, including Bacillus, Rhodanobacter, Streptomyces, and Chaetomium, while suppressing Acidobacteriota. Community-level physiological profiling analysis using Biolog Ecoplates containing 31 different carbon sources showed that cow dung soil had a different metabolic activity with higher utilization rates of carbohydrates and polymer carbon sources, mainly Tween 40 and beta-methyl-d-glucoside. These carbon sources were most highly associated with Bacillota. Furthermore, predicted ecological function analyses of bacterial and fungal communities showed that cow dung had a higher predicted function of fermentation and fewer functions related to plant pathogens and fungal parasites, signifying its potential to enhance soil suppressiveness. Co-occurrence network analysis based on random matrix theory (RMT) revealed that cow dung transformed the soil microbial network into a highly connected and complex network. This study is the first to report the alleviation of GRP using cow dung as a soil amendment, and the study contributes significantly to our understanding of how the soil microbiota and metabolic alterations via cow dung can aid in GRP alleviation.

Efficacy of Hydrogen Peroxide on Root Rot Disease of Ginseng Sprouts

Hydrogen peroxide is an eco-friendly oxidizing agent, which has exhibited a broad spectrum of antimicrobial activity without adverse environmental impact. This study was conducted to investigate the antifungal effect of hydrogen peroxide treatment against &lt;i&gt;Cylindrocarpon destructans&lt;/i&gt;, and consequently to evaluate its control efficacy against root rot disease of 2-year-old ginseng plants. Hydrogen peroxide treatment strongly inhibited the viability of &lt;i&gt;C. destructans&lt;/i&gt; conidia &lt;i&gt;in vitro&lt;/i&gt;. The hydrogen peroxide at a concentration of 300 mg/l significantly reduced disease infection of the ginseng root when treated to spore suspension (10&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt; conidia/ml). Spraying with 300 mg/l of hydrogen peroxide reduced the root rot disease of the ginseng sprouts by 15% compared to the untreated control at 14 days after the inoculation. However, 300 mg/l of hydrogen peroxide delayed the emergence of ginseng plants during sprouting under aeroponic conditions. Further works need to be done to provide an acceptable control efficacy of hydrogen peroxide against the disease and its good safety to ginseng plants.

Fluorescence Hyperspectral Imaging for Early Diagnosis of Heat-Stressed Ginseng Plants

Ginseng is a perennial herbaceous plant that has been widely consumed for medicinal and dietary purposes since ancient times. Ginseng plants require shade and cool temperatures for better growth; climate warming and rising heat waves have a negative impact on the plants’ productivity and yield quality. Since Republic of Korea’s temperature is increasing beyond normal expectations and is seriously threatening ginseng plants, an early-stage non-destructive diagnosis of stressed ginseng plants is essential before symptomatic manifestation to produce high-quality ginseng roots. This study demonstrated the potential of fluorescence hyperspectral imaging to achieve the early high-throughput detection and prediction of chlorophyll composition in four varieties of heat-stressed ginseng plants: Chunpoong, Jakyeong, Sunil, and Sunmyoung. Hyperspectral imaging data of 80 plants from these four varieties (temperature-sensitive and temperature-resistant) were acquired before and after exposing the plants to heat stress. Additionally, a SPAD-502 meter was used for the non-destructive measurement of the greenness level. In accordance, the mean spectral data of each leaf were extracted from the region of interest (ROI). Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was applied for the discrimination of heat-stressed plants, which was performed with 96% accuracy. Accordingly, the extracted spectral data were used to develop a partial least squares regression (PLSR) model combined with multiple preprocessing techniques for predicting greenness composition in ginseng plants that significantly correlates with chlorophyll concentration. The results obtained from PLSR analysis demonstrated higher determination coefficients of R2val = 0.90, and a root mean square error (RMSE) of 3.59%. Furthermore, five proposed bands (683 nm, 688 nm, 703 nm, 731 nm, and 745 nm) by stepwise regression (SR) were developed into a PLSR model, and the model coefficients were used to create a greenness-level concentration in images that showed differences between the control and heat-stressed plants for all varieties.

More microbial manipulation and plant defense than soil fertility for biochar in food production: A field experiment of replanted ginseng with different biochars.

The role of biochar-microbe interaction in plant rhizosphere mediating soil-borne disease suppression has been poorly understood for plant health in field conditions. Chinese ginseng (Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer) is widely cultivated in Alfisols across Northeast China, being often stressed severely by pathogenic diseases. In this study, the topsoil of a continuously cropped ginseng farm was amended at 20 t ha-1, respectively, with manure biochar (PB), wood biochar (WB), and maize residue biochar (MB) in comparison to conventional manure compost (MC). Post-amendment changes in edaphic properties of bulk topsoil and the rhizosphere, in root growth and quality, and disease incidence were examined with field observations and physicochemical, molecular, and biochemical assays. In the 3 years following the amendment, the increases over MC in root biomass were parallel to the overall fertility improvement, being greater with MB and WB than with PB. Differently, the survival rate of ginseng plants increased insignificantly with PB but significantly with WB (14%) and MB (21%), while ginseng root quality was unchanged with WB but improved with PB (32%) and MB (56%). For the rhizosphere at harvest following 3 years of growing, the total content of phenolic acids from root exudate decreased by 56, 35, and 45% with PB, WB, and MB, respectively, over MC. For the rhizosphere microbiome, total fungal and bacterial abundance both was unchanged under WB but significantly increased under MB (by 200 and 38%), respectively, over MC. At the phyla level, abundances of arbuscular mycorrhizal and Bryobacter as potentially beneficial microbes were elevated while those of Fusarium and Ilyonectria as potentially pathogenic microbes were reduced, with WB and MB over MC. Moreover, rhizosphere fungal network complexity was enhanced insignificantly under PB but significantly under WB moderately and MB greatly, over MC. Overall, maize biochar exerted a great impact rather on rhizosphere microbial community composition and networking of functional groups, particularly fungi, and thus plant defense than on soil fertility and root growth.

Functional compounds of ginseng and ginseng-containing medicine for treating cardiovascular diseases.

Ginseng (Panax ginseng C.A.Mey.) is the dry root and rhizome of the Araliaceae ginseng plant. It has always been used as a tonic in China for strengthening the body. Cardiovascular disease is still the main cause of death in the world. Some studies have shown that the functional components of ginseng can regulate the pathological process of various cardiovascular diseases through different mechanisms, and its formulation also plays an irreplaceable role in the clinical treatment of cardiovascular diseases. Therefore, this paper elaborates the current pharmacological effects of ginseng functional components in treating cardiovascular diseases, summarizes the adverse reactions of ginseng, and sorts out the Chinese patent medicines containing ginseng formula which can treat cardiovascular diseases.

Ginsenoside Rh2 Induces HeLa Apoptosis through Upregulating Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress-Related and Downstream Apoptotic Gene Expression.

Cervical cancer is a common gynecological malignancy afflicting women all over the world. Ginsenoside Rh2 (GRh2), especially 20(S)-GRh2, is a biologically active component in the natural plant ginseng, which can exhibit anticancer effects. Here, we aimed to investigate the effect of 20(S)-GRh2 on cervical cancer and elucidate the underlying mechanism through RNA-seq. In this study, the CCK-8 assay showed that 20(S)-GRh2 inhibited HeLa cell viability in a time- and dose-dependent manner. Caspase 3 activity and Annexin V staining results showed that 20(S)-GRh2 induced apoptosis of HeLa cells. Gene function enrichment analysis revealed that the biological process gene ontology (GO) terms were associated with the apoptotic signaling pathway. Biological process GO terms' similarity network indicated that apoptosis might be from endoplasmic reticulum stress (ERs). Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes enrichment analysis revealed that 20(S)-GRh2 primarily modulates apoptosis pathway genes. Combined protein-protein interaction network, hub gene screening, and qPCR validation data showed that ERs-related genes (ATF4 and DDIT3) and the downstream apoptotic genes (JUN, FOS, BBC3, and PMAIP1) were potential novel targets of 20(S)-GRh2-inducing cervical cancer cell apoptosis. Differential transcript usage analysis indicated that DDIT3 is also a differential transcript and its usage of the isoform (ENST00000552740.5) was reduced by 20(S)-GRh2. Molecular docking suggested that 20(S)-GRh2 binds to the targets (ATF4, DDIT3, JUN, FOS, BBC3, and PMAIP1) with high affinity. In conclusion, our findings indicated that 20(S)-GRh2 might promote ERs-related apoptosis of cervical cancer cells by regulating the DDIT3-based targets' signal pathway. The role of 20(S)-GRh2 at the transcriptome level provides novel targets and evidence for the treatment of cervical cancer.

First Report of Powdery Mildew of American Ginseng Caused by Erysiphe heraclei in Tennessee and the United States.

American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L.), native to the forested regions of northeast U.S is a perennial herb valued as traditional Chinese medicine. It has been cultivated in North America for several decades due to high global demand. Powdery mildew symptoms were observed on 8-year-old cultivated American ginseng leaves (Fig. 1a, b) on a residential property in Rutherford Co., TN in May 2022. Disease severity was 40 to 60% of leaf area and incidence was 33% out of 30 plants. Affected plants exhibited white fungal colonies on the leaves. Under severe infection, the leaves were chlorotic and senescing. Microscopic observation revealed masses of conidia and mycelia on symptomatic tissue. Conidiophores were cylindrical and unbranched (2- or, rarely, 3-septate), measuring 66.7 ± 12.5 μm (n=78) with a range of 24.3 to 90.7 μm. Conidia produced singly or in pseudo-chains (Fig. 1c). Conidiophore foot cells measured 23.2 ± 4.3 μm long (n=54) and the width at the foot cell septum was 5.1 ± 0.6 μm (n=54). Hyphal width was 3.3 ± 0.6 um (n=59). Fresh vacuolated spores were oblong-elliptical to oblong (Fig. 1d) and measured 31.5 × 11.9 μm (n=55), lacked fibrosin bodies. The length-to-width ratio of conidia was 1.9 to 4.4 (avg. 2.7). Superficial mycelia and germinating spores displayed lobed appressorium (Fig. 1e). Detached spore surfaces were wrinkled (Fig. 1f). Morphological characteristics of the fungus matched the description of Erysiphe heraclei (Braun and Cook, 2012) and Erysiphe sp. (Cho et al. 2016) except for conidiophore length, which was shorter in our sample. To confirm pathogen identity, total DNA was extracted directly from single spore cultures (isolates FBG1668 and FBG1728). The ribosomal internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region was amplified using ITS4 and ITS5 primers (White et al. 1990). The sequences (GenBank accession nos. OP458196 and OP469994) showed 100% identity and 100% query coverage to E. heraclei (KY073878 and LC270862). The sequences were also 100% identical to the ITS sequences of E. betae and E. malvae. Solano-Báez et al. (2022) noted that the species in the E. malvae/E. heraclei/E. betae species complex are phylogenetically undistinguishable. E. betae and E. malvae infect plants in Chenopodiaceae and Malvaceae, respectively (Braun and Cook, 2012). However, E. heraclei has been reported to infect plants in Apiaceae. American ginseng belongs to Araliaceae which is a close family to Apiaceae and both belong to Apiales. Based on morphological and molecular identification, both isolates were identified as E. heraclei. Pathogenicity was confirmed by inoculating the adaxial leaf surface of six 2-year-old American ginseng plants. Spores from detached symptomatic leaves were tapped onto the adaxial surface of healthy leaves. Six non-inoculated and inoculated plants were maintained in a greenhouse at 21 to 23°C, 70%RH, with 16-h photoperiod. After 2 weeks, powdery mildew symptoms developed on the inoculated plants. The microscopy and molecular analysis confirmed infection and all control plants remained asymptomatic. Cho et al. (2016) reported powdery mildew on Korean ginseng (P. ginseng C.A. Mey) caused by Erysiphe sp., and Sholberg et al. (1996) reported Erysiphe sp. on P. quinquefolius in Canada, but to our knowledge, this is the first report of powdery mildew caused by E. heraclei on American ginseng in Tennessee and the U.S. Identification and timely management of powdery mildew on American ginseng will be necessary to control this disease in affected growing sites.

Degradation and residues of mandipropamid in soil and ginseng and dietary risk assessment in Chinese culture.

Mandipropamid, a new fungicide for oomycete disease, has a strong effect on the blight of many crops and has been registered for the treatment of ginseng blight in China. However, no maximum residue limit (MRL) of mandipropamid has been identified for ginseng, and there have been few related studies. We established and verified the analysis method of mandipropamid in ginseng using high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. The method has good linearity and accuracy in the range of 0.002-0.5mg/kg. The average recovery of mandipropamid was 87.4-101.6%, and the standard deviation was 1.1-4.0. Mandipropamid in ginseng plants and soil rapidly degraded following first-order kinetics models. The degradation dynamics showed that the half-life of mandipropamid in ginseng plant and soil was 13.8-28.0 and 9.8-27.4 d, respectively. After the recommended dose of mandipropamid was applied once, the residual content of mandipropamid in fresh ginseng, dried ginseng, red ginseng, ginseng plant, and ginseng soil was < 0.01-0.185, < 0.01-0.265, 0.085-1.544, 0.075-4.800, and < 0.01-0.014mg/kg, respectively. The dietary risk assessment of mandipropamid on ginseng showed that the risk quotient value was far less than 100%, indicating that the recommended dose of mandipropamid does not cause unacceptable risks to humans. After the recommended dose of mandipropamid was applied once, it did not cause unacceptable risks to humans. This study not only provides a reasonable spray dosage of mandipropamid to ginseng but also offers a reference for the establishment of MRLs in China.