Plant Pollinator Research Articles

Fire effects on pollination and plant reproduction: a quantitative review.

Fire may favour plant flowering by opening the vegetation and increasing abiotic resource availability. Increased floral display size can attract more pollinators and increase the absolute fruit and seed production immediately after the fire. However, anthropogenic increases in fire frequency may alter these responses. We aim to assess the effects of fire on pollination and reproductive success of plants at the global scale. We performed a systematic literature review and meta-analyses to examine overall fire effects as well as different fire parameters on pollination and on plant reproduction. We also explored to what extent the responses vary among pollinators, pollination vectors, plant regeneration strategies, compatibility systems, vegetation types and biomes. Most studies were conducted in fire-prone ecosystems. Overall, single fires increased pollination and plant reproduction but this effect was overridden by recurrent fires. Floral visitation rates of pollinators were enhanced immediately following a wildfire, and especially in bee-pollinated plants. Fire increased the absolute production of fruits or seeds but not the fruit or seed set. The reproductive benefits were mostly observed in wind-pollinated (graminoids), herbaceous and resprouter species. Finally, fire effects on pollination were positively correlated with fire effects on plant reproductive success. Fire has a central role in pollination and plant sexual reproduction in fire-prone ecosystems. The increase in the absolute production of fruits and seeds suggests that fire benefits on plant reproduction are likely driven by increased abiotic resources and the consequent floral display size. However, reproduction efficiency, as measured by fruit or seed set, does not increase with fire. In contrast, when assessed on the same plant simultaneously, fire effects on pollination are translated into reproduction. Increased fire frequency due to anthropogenic changes can alter the nature of the response to fire.

Land-use affects pollinator-specific resource availability and pollinator foraging behaviour.

Land-use management is a key factor causing pollinator declines in agricultural grasslands. This decline can not only be directly driven by land-use (e.g., habitat loss) but also be indirectly mediated through a reduction in floral resource abundance and diversity, which might in turn affect pollinator health and foraging. We conducted surveys of the abundance of flowering plant species and behavioural observations of two common generalist pollinator species, namely the bumblebee Bombus lapidarius and the syrphid fly Episyrphus balteatus, in managed grasslands of variable land-use intensity (LUI) to investigate whether land-use affects (1) resource availability of the pollinators, (2) their host plant selection and (3) pollinator foraging behaviour. We have found that the floral composition of plant species that were used as resource by the investigated pollinator species depends on land-use intensity and practices such as mowing or grazing. We have also found that bumblebees, but not syrphid flies, visit different plants depending on LUI or management type. Furthermore, LUI indirectly changed pollinator behaviour via a reduction in plot-level flower diversity and abundance. For example, bumblebees show longer flight durations with decreasing flower cover indicating higher energy expenditure when foraging on land-use intensive plots. Syrphid flies were generally less affected by local land use, showing how different pollinator groups can differently react to land-use change. Overall, we show that land-use can change resource composition, abundance and diversity for pollinators, which can in turn affect pollinator foraging behaviour and potentially contribute to pollinator decline in agricultural grasslands.

Differential response of plant and insect pollinator communities to fragmentation in coastal dune slacks

Abstract Habitat destruction and fragmentation are one of the main drivers of pollinator decline and biodiversity loss in general. However, the exact effects of habitat fragmentation on pollinator communities are still poorly understood, and it remains unclear which patch characteristics are most important in driving pollinator diversity and community composition. In this study, we inventoried plant and insect diversity in a total of 19 fragmented dune slacks in Belgium. Specifically, we assessed the effects of dune slack area and connectivity on plant and pollinator diversity and community composition. Additionally, we investigated to what extent plant diversity had an impact on insect pollinator communities. The results indicated that species richness of both plants and insects was significantly related to patch area, whereas patch connectivity only had a significant effect on plant diversity. Nestedness analyses showed that plant communities of small dune slacks were a subset of the communities of large patches, but no such patterns were found for insect communities. Turnover in pollinator communities was high and significantly related to the distance separating dune slacks. Overall, our results highlight the importance of large patches for sustaining both plant and pollinator communities. Additionally, enhancing connectivity has the potential to promote plant diversity and consequently benefit pollinator species.

High pesticide exposure and risk to bees in pollinator plantings adjacent to conventionally managed blueberry fields

Wildflower plantings adjacent to agricultural fields provide diverse floral resources and nesting sites for wild bees. However, their proximity to pest control activities in the crop may result in pesticide exposure if pesticides drift into pollinator plantings. To quantify pesticide residues in pollinator plantings, we sampled flowers and soil from pollinator plantings and compared them to samples from unenhanced field margins and crop row middles. At conventionally managed farms, flowers from pollinator plantings had similar exposure profiles to those from unenhanced field margins or crop row middles, with multiple pesticides and high and similar risk quotient (RQ) values (with pollinator planting RQ: 3.9; without pollinator planting RQ: 4.0). Whereas samples from unsprayed sites had significantly lower risk (RQ: 0.005). Soil samples had overall low risk to bees. Additionally, we placed bumble bee colonies (Bombus impatiens) in field margins of crop fields with and without pollinator plantings and measured residues in bee-collected pollen. Pesticide exposure was similar in pollen from sites with or without pollinator plantings, and risk was generally high (with pollinator planting RQ: 0.5; without pollinator planting RQ: 1.1) and not significant between the two field types. Risk was lower at sites where there was no pesticide activity (RQ: 0.3), but again there was no significant difference between management types. The insecticide phosmet, which is used on blueberry farms for control of Drosophila suzukii, accounted for the majority of elevated risk. Additionally, analysis of pollen collected by bumble bees found no significant difference in floral species richness between sites with or without pollinator plantings. Our results suggest that pollinator plantings do not reduce pesticide risk and do not increase pollen diversity collected by B. impatiens, further highlighting the need to reduce exposure through enhanced IPM adoption, drift mitigation, and removal of attractive flowering weeds prior to insecticide applications.

Loss of functional diversity rather than species diversity of pollinators decreases community‐wide trait matching and pollination function

Abstract Loss of animal species and functional diversity can degrade ecosystem functions and services in plant–animal mutualistic networks, but their relative effects have rarely been previously examined in natural communities. Contrary to previously published theoretical results, under natural conditions, changes in pollinator functional niches caused by species and functional diversity losses are dynamic and often unpredictable. The lack of studies on natural networks limits our ability to predict future effects of decreasing pollinator diversity on wild and cultivated plants. We quantitatively evaluated the relative effects of pollinator species and functional diversity loss on plant–pollinator trait matching and pollination success across 40 spatiotemporally variable coastal networks. We found that low pollinator functional diversity (low abundance of long‐tongued pollinators) reduced community‐level plant functional specialization and trait matching between flowers and pollinators by reducing functional floral‐niche partitioning among pollinators. In contrast, pollinator species diversity did not influence community‐level trait matching. Furthermore, decreasing community‐level trait matching had a negative effect on community‐level plant pollination success, regardless of flower morphology. The present study demonstrated that pollinator functional diversity loss, rather than species diversity loss, was the main factor contributing to pollination functional loss in the plant–pollinator networks studied. We also demonstrated the importance of assessing functional aspects of plant–pollinator networks to evaluate community‐level pollination functional loss under global pollinator decline. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog.

Effects of Florivory on Floral Visitors and Reproductive Success of Sagittaria lancifolia (Alismataceae) in a Mexican Wetland.

Florivores consume floral structures with negative effects on plant fitness and pollinator attraction. Several studies have evaluated these consequences in hermaphroditic plants, but little is known about the effects on monoecious and dioecious species. We characterize the florivory and its effects on floral visitors and reproductive success in a monoecious population of Sagittaria lancifolia. Five categories of florivory were established according to the petal area consumed. Visits were recorded in male and female flowers within the different damage categories. Reproductive success was evaluated through fruit number and weight, as well as the number of seeds per fruit. Our results show that the weevil Tanysphyrus lemnae is the main florivore, and it mainly damages the female flowers. Hymenoptera were recorded as the most frequent visitors of both male and female flowers. Male and female flowers showed differences in visit frequency, which decreases as flower damage increases. Reproductive success was negatively related to the level of damage. We found that florivory is common in the population of S. lancifolia, which can exert a strong selective pressure by making the flowers less attractive and reducing the number of seeds per fruit. Future studies are needed to know how florivores affect plant male fitness.

Global Trends in Climate Suitability of Bees: Ups and Downs in a Warming World.

Bees represent vital natural assets contributing significantly to global food production and the maintenance of ecosystems. While studies on climate change effects impacting major pollinators like honeybees and bumblebees raise concerns about global diversity and crop productivity, comprehensive global-scale analyses remain limited. This study explores the repercussions of global warming on 1365 bees across seven families of bees worldwide. To compile a robust global bee occurrence dataset, we utilized the innovative 'BeeBDC' R package that amalgamated over 18.3 million bee occurrence records sourced from various repositories. Through species distribution models under the SSP585 scenario in the year 2070, we assessed how climate change influences the climate suitability of bees on a global scale, examining the impacts across continents. Our findings suggested that approximately 65% of bees are likely to witness a decrease in their distribution, with reductions averaging between 28% in Australia and 56% in Europe. Moreover, our analysis indicated that climate change's impact on bees is projected to be more severe in Africa and Europe, while North America is expected to witness a higher number (336) of bees expanding their distribution. Climate change's anticipated effects on bee distributions could potentially disrupt existing pollinator-plant networks, posing ecological challenges that emphasize the importance of pollinator diversity, synchrony between plants and bees, and the necessity for focused conservation efforts.

Impacts of Climate Change on Honey Bee Production in Jalalabad City Afghanistan

Beekeeping is emerging as a very successful, beneficial and profitable agricultural practice for local societies in Asian countries. This practice is not only related to beekeeping, but have intrinsic health benefits and importance through providing better food source with great nutritional value which is lacking in local or developed areas, beekeeping is also very important for various plant pollination and bees use pollen for their normal life. In rural areas there is almost an unlimited source of pollen and bees are having ability to pollinate natural local crops. In this regards honey bees are the most major pollinators of the cultivated crops in the world. If environmental temperature or climate changes could occur, that is significantly affecting honey bees biology, behavior, distribution and its production. But indirectly climate change or stream is natural enemy of local floral resources. Aim of this study was to evaluate the impact of climate changes on honey bee productions in Jalalabad surrounding areas. This study was completed from the surveys and inspection to identify the main climate change problems and its impact on honey bee’s production. This study was focused on the emerging view that climate changes had effected reducing of feed (reduction of flowers), facilitate less area for rearing of bees, reactions of the people against bee farms, pest, diseases and also climate change can effect physiology and behavior of the bees, decrease pollination rate and affects the production and size of the colonies. The beekeepers should have awareness from the weather conditions and must be emerge their farms to safe and floral resources areas.

Diversity and foraging activity of coffee insect pollinators in land near and far from the forest of North Sumatra, Indonesia

Abstract. Sinaga RR, Maryana N, Hidayat P. 2024. Diversity and foraging activity of coffee insect pollinators in land near and far from the forest of North Sumatra, Indonesia. Biodiversitas 25: 240-248. Coffee (Coffea spp.) is among the plant species that depend on insects to aid in its pollination process, where insect pollinators serve as intermediaries facilitating plant pollination. This study examined the diversity, abundance, and visiting activity of insect pollinators in coffee cultivation located in different areas, specifically those near the forest and those far from the forest in Simalungun District, North Sumatra. The study was carried out from September 2022 to February 2023 in six coffee cultivation sites spread across four sub-districts in Simalungun District, i.e., Silimakuta, Pematang Silimakuta, Purba, and Dolok Silau. The study's results revealed the presence of 16 species of insect pollinators in coffee cultivation near the forest and 13 species in those located far from the forest. The identified insect pollinators species were from Order Hymenoptera; Apis cerana, Lasioglossum sp., Dolichovespula norvegicoides, Diptera; Stomorhina discolor, Musca domestica, Bactrocera papayae, Nephrotoma flavescens, Episyrphus viridaureus, Oebalia sp., Coleoptera; Pachnaeus sp., Cantharis sp., Scarabaeidae sp 1., Maladera japonica, Lepidoptera; Agrotis segetum, Bradina diagonalis, and Nyctemera baulus. Notably, the abundance of coffee insect pollinators was more pronounced in close proximity to the forest compared to areas far from the forest. Regarding the visiting duration of these insects, S. discolor exhibited the longest visit duration of 76.46±1.19 seconds per flower, and the shortest duration in A. cerana was recorded at 8.35±0.23 seconds per flower.

The stingless bee Trigona spinipes (Hymenoptera: Apidae) is at risk from a range of insecticides via direct ingestion and trophallactic exchanges.

The stingless bee, Trigona spinipes, is an important pollinator of numerous native and cultivated plants. Trigona spinipes populations can be negatively impacted by insecticides commonly used for pest control in crops. However, this species has been neglected in toxicological studies. Here we observed the effects of seven insecticides on the survival of bees that had fed directly on insecticide-contaminated food sources or received insecticides via trophallactic exchanges between nestmates. The effects of insecticides on flight behavior were also determined for the compounds considered to be of low toxicity. Imidacloprid, spinosad and malathion were categorized as highly toxic to T. spinipes, whereas lambda-cyhalothrin, methomyl and chlorfenapyr were of medium to low toxicity and interfered with two aspects of flight behavior evaluated here. Chlorantraniliprole was the only insecticide tested here that had no significant effect on T. spinipes survival, although it did interfere with one aspect of flight capacity. A single bee that had ingested malathion, spinosad or imidacloprid, could contaminate three, four and nineteen other bees, respectively via trophallaxis, resulting in the death of the recipients. This is the first study to evaluate the ecotoxicology of a range of insecticides that not only negatively affected T. spinipes survival, but also interfered with flight capacity, a very important aspect of pollination behavior. The toxicity of the insecticides was observed following direct ingestion and also via trophallactic exchanges between nestmates, highlighting the possibility of lethal effects of these insecticides spreading throughout the colony, reducing the survival of non-foraging individuals. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.

Investigating the longstanding mystery of stigma length differences between morphs of distylous plants.

Longer stigmas in short-styled morphs of distylous plants have been considered an adaptive characteristic that increases intermorph pollen deposition. The greater pollen deposition in short-styled stigmas may be a by-product of their longer length, making deposition effectiveness comparison between morphs unfeasible. Thus, investigating which morph has the relatively most efficient stigma (i.e., pollen deposition per unit length) can boost our understanding of the adaptive significance of longer stigmas. Here, we compared pollen deposition between morphs relative to stigma length and assessed whether short-styled stigmas are more, less, or equally effective in receiving pollen grains per unit length. We reviewed the literature to characterize the extent of sigma length differences between morphs using the two most speciose distylous genera as model systems: Palicourea and Psychotria (Rubiaceae). Then, we conducted a between-morph comparison of raw and relative pollen depositions in a Palicourea rigida population. We confirmed that short-styled stigmas were longer than long-styled stigmas in both Palicourea (194.31% longer) and Psychotria (52.59% longer) flowers. Furthermore, in the focal Pal. rigida, although short-styled stigmas were 268.04% longer and received 97.04% more pollen grains than long-styled stigmas, the relative pollen deposition had a reverse pattern, with short-styled stigmas being two-times less efficient in receiving pollen. Our results indicate that the longer length of the short-styled stigmas may have a compensatory effect, increasing the chances of pollen grains reaching the stigma and probably maintaining disassortative intermorph pollination in distylous plants.

Effect of land-use intensity and adjacent semi-natural habitats on wild and honey bees of meadows

Most terrestrial ecosystems are shaped by the pollination service provided by insects, foremost bees. As bees are also important pollinators of crop plants, they are key for both the pollination of wild plants and for agricultural production. Meadows and semi-natural habitats (SNHs) are important habitats for bees. However, there is limited knowledge on how land-use intensity of meadows affects wild bees and managed Western honey bees. Further, it is unknown whether SNHs adjacent to meadows affect bees in meadows. Here, we examined in a landscape dominated by grasslands, the effects of land-use intensity (nitrogen input, grazing intensity, mowing frequency), flower availability and adjacent SNHs on bee communities in meadows. We recorded more than 5000 individuals of 87 species of bees and found no effect of land-use intensity on wild and honey bees. Flowering plant species richness had a positive effect on bee species richness in one study year. Though we recorded more bee species in SNHs than meadows, overall and specifically in ecologically specialized bee species (e.g. parasitic bees, oligoleges), the availability of adjacent SNHs did not affect bee abundance and richness in meadows. We discuss why land-use intensity and SNHs adjacent to meadows did not affect bees in meadows and conclude that SNHs are important in sustaining functionally diverse bee communities in landscapes dominated by grasslands.

Pollinator intraspecific body size variation and sociality influence their interactions with plants

Abstract Species morphological and behavioural traits are key determinants of which pollinator species interact with which plant species. However, individuals within species are not identical in their traits and this diversity could help us understand plant–pollinator interaction patterns. Using three independent data sets, we assessed whether bee intraspecific body size variation (ITV) and sociality influenced pollinator interaction specialisation, intraspecific niche partitioning, centrality in the interaction network and phylogenetic diversity of the plants visited. We found that solitary pollinators were more specialised in their interactions with plants and had lower intraspecific niche partitioning compared to social pollinators. Furthermore, solitary pollinators with higher ITV had higher centrality in the network and visited a higher phylogenetic diversity of plants compared to solitary species with lower ITV, whereas the opposite pattern emerged for social pollinators. Pollinator ITV did not differ between social and solitary bee species. Our findings show that the effect of pollinator body size variation on plant–pollinator interactions depends on pollinator species sociality. Specifically, solitary pollinators with higher ITV and social pollinators with lower ITV seem to be the most important contributors to maintaining the evolutionary diversity of the plant community, and also the species with the largest potential to affect (via cascade effects) the entire plant–pollinator network. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog.

Urbanisation and agricultural intensification modulate plant–pollinator network structure and robustness

Abstract Land use change is a major pressure on pollinator abundance, diversity and plant–pollinator interactions. Far less is known about how land‐use alters the structure of plant–pollinator networks and their robustness to plant–pollinator coextinctions. We analysed the structure of plant–pollinator networks sampled in 12 landscapes along an urbanisation and agricultural intensity gradient, from early spring to late summer 2021, and used a stochastic coextinction model to correlate plant–pollinator coextinction risk with network structure (species and network‐level metrics) and landscape context. Networks in intensively managed (i.e., agricultural and urban) landscapes had a lower risk of initiating a coextinction cascade, while networks in less intensively managed landscapes may be less robust. Network structure modulated the frequency and severity of coextinctions and species loss, while the strength of species interactions increased robustness. Urban networks were more species rich and symmetrical due to the high diversity of ornamental plants, while intensively managed agricultural landscapes had smaller, more tightly connected and nested networks. Network structure modulated the frequency of extinctions, which was decreased by greater linkage density, interaction asymmetry and interaction dependence in the networks, while once an extinction occurred, nestedness and linkage density propagated the degree of the coextinction cascade and species loss. At the species level, species strength was inversely correlated with extinction risk, implying that generalist species with a high number of interactions with specialists had the lowest extinction risk. An interplay between land‐use and network structure affects community robustness to coextinctions with implications for pollination services and plant reproduction. Land‐use change or other global change pressures by reorganising species interactions can alter communities and their potential functioning. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog.

The Economic Importance of Bees

Being pollinators of entomophilous plants, bees are part of natural complexes of agrolandscapes due to their species composition. Pollination of flowers by bees on the territory of Nakhchivan mainly occurs within 700-1300hours in the morning. The maximum value of the number of bees in crops was recorded at 1100-1300 hours. The main pollinators of alfalfa and other fodder plants are representatives of Andrena, Melitturga, Halictus, Nomia, Rophitoides, Melitta, Anthidium, Osmia, Eucera, Megachile, Lithurgus, Anthophoraand Bombus genera. Our monitoring of bee populations in natural conditions and the application of a system for predicting expected changes serve their effective utilization, protection, and creation of favorable conditions for their aggregation in agro- and various coenosis.

The state of populations of honey bees, Apis mellifera L., with an increase in the pesticide load in agroce- noses

It is generally recognised that pesticides play a significant role in the decline in the number of insects observed worldwide. The analysis of the causes of unprecedented losses of Apis mellifera L. bee colonies has been carried out. When using plant protection products in agrocenoses. The current state of knowledge on assessing the impact of pesticides on non–target objects is summarised as honey bees and other types of bee pollinators of plants. The mechanisms and features of selective exposure of insecticides from the group of neonicotinoids, butenolides and based on fipronil are described. In addition to direct lethal effects, there is a decrease in the viability and subsequent death of bee colonies as a result of changes in the cognitive abilities of worker bees, the reproductive potential of queens and drones, changes in the immune status of bee colonies and the etiological characteristics of insects. Examples of the negative impact on honeybee populations of various regions of the Russian Federation when using pesticides in agrocenoses are given. The role of organic agriculture in the conservation of honey bees and other pollinators, providing a yield comparable to the integrated plant protection system of entomophilic crops, is noted. Measures to prevent the reduction of honey bee populations due to pesticide toxicosis are outlined: 1. Compliance with the requirements of regulatory documents; 2. Providing apiaries with an optimal feed base; 3. Exclusion of highly toxic insecticides from entomophilic crop protection programs; 4. Realisation of the adaptive potential of honey bees in changing environmental conditions; 5. Transition to organic farming in the cultivation of entomophilic crops.

Development and Evaluation of a Web Application for Attracting Bees to Your Garden

An online application called BeeGardens was developed for users to quickly access over 85 bee-friendly plants that attract 12 primary bee groups and ways to incorporate these into different landscape designs. The functionality and usefulness of the app was evaluated by students enrolled in two courses: Florida Native Landscaping or Annual and Perennial Gardening, taught in different semesters. Before and after the semester, students were asked to report their perceived confidence to (1) identify bee-friendly plants, (2) identify bee pollinators, and (3) design a bee-friendly garden, using a Likert scale with responses ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Means of pre- and post-test self-reported responses showed a significant confidence gain upon using the BeeGardens online application in both courses. Students in Annual and Perennial Gardening and Florida Native Landscaping were 1.26 and 1.34 times, respectively, more confident in their ability to identify pollinator plants, identify bee pollinators, and design bee gardens after using the web application. These data were consistent with pre- and post-tested means where students were asked to identify three major pollinator plants and three major pollinators using multiple choice response options. Test scores increased by 26.3% and 37.9% in Annual and Perennial Gardening and Florida Native Landscaping, respectively. The majority of students (95.0%) agreed or strongly agreed this learning tool was organized, easy to navigate, and would use it in the future. Since its launch in 2021, BeeGardens has averaged 1201 unique visits per month, revealing its popularity and wide use.

Elevational and seasonal patterns of plant pollinator networks in two highland tropical ecosystems in Costa Rica.

Many plant species in high montane ecosystems rely on animal pollination for sexual reproduction, however, our understanding of plant-pollinator interactions in tropical montane habitats is still limited. We compared species diversity and composition of blooming plants and floral visitors, and the structure of plant-floral visitor networks between the Montane Forest and Paramo ecosystems in Costa Rica. We also studied the influence of seasonality on species composition and interaction structure. Given the severe climatic conditions experienced by organisms in habitats above treeline, we expected lower plant and insect richness, as well as less specialized and smaller pollination networks in the Paramo than in Montane Forest where climatic conditions are milder and understory plants are better protected. Accordingly, we found that blooming plants and floral visitor species richness was higher in the Montane Forest than in the Paramo, and in both ecosystems species richness of blooming plants and floral visitors was higher in the rainy season than in the dry season. Interaction networks in the Paramo were smaller and more nested, with lower levels of specialization and modularity than those in the Montane Forest, but there were no seasonal differences within either ecosystem. Beta diversity analyses indicate that differences between ecosystems are likely explained by species turnover, whereas within the Montane Forest differences between seasons are more likely explained by the rewiring of interactions. Results indicate that the decrease in species diversity with elevation affects network structure, increasing nestedness and reducing specialization and modularity.

Air pollution: a threat to insect pollination

Entomophilous plants rely on insects for pollination and consequently for reproduction. However, insect pollinators are facing multiple human‐driven pressures, from climate change to habitat loss to increased pesticide application. Anthropogenic activities have also led to critical increases in air pollution. A recent body of research focusing on the effects of air pollution on plant–pollinator interactions shows that air pollution might join the list of factors threatening insect pollination. Here, we examine the ways in which air pollution is thought to influence insect pollination, from potential mismatches between flowering and pollinator activity, to changes in pollinator attraction to flowers, to extensions in foraging periods. We consider the implications of these changes for plant reproduction and pollinator fitness and discuss how air pollutants are imperiling plant and pollinator communities. Finally, we define the questions that need to be addressed to better understand the impact of air pollution as a major driver of global change.

Lower diversity of forbs in prairie restoration alters pollinator communities but not structural characteristics of plant–pollinator networks

Reestablishment of native plant communities is often the primary focus of ecological restoration. This is especially true for prairie restoration, which often struggles to establish diverse forb communities. An often‐overlooked component in plant reestablishment is pollinators, with 85% of forbs requiring pollination for seed reproduction. A deeper understanding of the relationship between plant and pollinator communities could improve prairie restoration success. Our goal was to determine if prairie restoration is successfully reestablishing forb and pollinator communities and their interactions by measuring plant–pollinator networks. We hypothesized that both forb and pollinator communities would be less diverse and abundant in restoration sites compared to intact prairie remnants, and that as a result, plant–pollinator networks in restoration sites would have higher nestedness and connectance, but lower modularity and network specialization than remnant sites. To test this, we measured plant–pollinator networks and forb communities from June to September 2020 at three restored and three remnant Palouse Prairie sites in eastern Washington, United States. We found that although restored sites had lower species richness of forbs and pollinators and different community composition, forb and pollinator abundance was comparable between treatments. Forb abundance in restored sites was equivalent to prairie remnants due to the presence of invasive forbs. However, these differences in community composition and diversity did not appear to impact network metrics including nestedness, connectance, modularity, and network specialization, which were similar between remnant and restored sites. Our results suggest that the structural characteristics of plant–pollinator networks can be maintained by different plant communities.