Plant Cell Cultures Research Articles

Insoluble polysaccharides produced in plant cell cultures protect from Clostridioides difficile colitis

Clostridioides difficile infection (CDI) poses a significant health threat due to high recurrence rates. Antimicrobial agents are commonly used to manage CDI-related diarrhoea; however, by aggravating intestinal dysbiosis, antibiotics enable C. difficile spores germination and production of toxins, the main virulence factors. Therefore, the binding of exotoxins using adsorbents represents an attractive alternative medication for the prevention and treatment of relapses. In this study, we provided evidence that the natural insoluble polysaccharides, named ABR119, extracted by plant cell cultures, effectively trap C. difficile toxins. In our experiments, ABR119 exhibited no cytotoxicity in vitro and was safely administered in vivo. In the animal model of C. difficile-associated colitis, ABR119 (50 mg/kg body weight) significantly reduced the colonic myeloperoxidase activity and severity of inflammation, preventing body weight loss. These effects were not evident when we treated animals with wheat bran polysaccharides. We did not detect bacterial killing effects of ABR119 against C. difficile nor against bacterial species of the normal gut microbiota. Moreover, ABR119 did not interfere in vitro with the antimicrobial activities of most clinically used antibiotics. In summary, ABR119 holds promise for treating and preventing C. difficile colitis by trapping the bacterial toxins, warranting further studies to assess the ABR119 potential in human infections caused by C. difficile.

Natural biosynthesis, pharmacological applications, and sustainable biotechnological production of ornamental plant-derived anthocyanin: beyond colorants and aesthetics.

Flowers have long been admired for their aesthetic qualities and have even found their way to be included in the human diet. Among the many chemical compounds found in flowers, anthocyanins stand out for their versatile applications in the food, cosmetic, and nutraceutical industries. The biosynthetic pathway of anthocyanins has been thoroughly studied in certain flower species, leading to the detection of key regulatory genes that can be controlled to enhance the production of anthocyanins via biotechnological methods. Nevertheless, the quantity and form of anthocyanins found in natural sources differ, bothqualitativelyandquantitatively, depending on the ornamental plant species. For this reason, research on in vitroplantcultures has been conducted for years in an attempt to comprehend how these essential substances are produced. Different biotechnological systems, like in vitro plant cell, organ, and tissue cultures, and transgenic approaches, have been employed to produce anthocyanins under controlled conditions. However, multiple factors influence the production of anthocyanins and create challenges during large-scale production. Metabolic engineering techniques have also been utilized for anthocyanin production in microorganisms and recombinant plants. Although these techniques are primarily tested at lab- and pilot-scale, limited studies have focused on scaling up the production. This review analyses the chemistry and biosynthesis of anthocyanin along with the factors that influence the biosynthetic pathway. Further emphasis has been given on strategies for conventional and non-conventional anthocyanin production along with their quantification, addressing the prevailing challenges, and exploring ways to ameliorate the production using the in vitro plant cell and tissue culture systems and metabolic engineering to open up new possibilities for the cosmetic, pharmaceutical, and food industries.

ACCUMULATION OF POLYPHENOLS AT THE BEGINNING OF PHOTOMORPHOGENESIS IN VITRO TEA PLANT CULTURES UNDER THE INFLUENCE OF DIFFERENT LIGHT INTENSITY

Introduction. An important direction in the biotechnology of plant cell cultures is the search for factors and influences that contribute to increasing the accumulation of pharmacologically valuable metabolites in them, including polyphenols. These factors include light, the effect of which activates the processes of photomorphogenesis in in vitro cultures, regulates their differentiation and metabolic processes. All this depends on the intensity of the light flux, the origin of the cells and tissues cultivated in vitro, as well as the economic value of the synthesized plant metabolites. One of the promising pharmacologically valuable crops are tea plants (Camellia sinensis L.), as well as callus cultures initiated from them, which are characterized by the accumulation of various polyphenols, including flavans – substances with P-vitamin capillary-strengthening activity. The aim of the study was to compare the effect of different light intensity on the morpho-physiological characteristics of tea callus cultures, as well as the accumulation and localization of polyphenols in them. Material and methods. The object of the study was tea callus cultures of stem origin grown for 40 days at light intensity: 50 µmol·m2·s1, 75 µmol·m2·s1 and 100 µmol·m2·s1 (low, medium and high intensity, respectively). Morphophysiological parameters of calluses (color, density, water content), the total phenolics and flavans content in them, as well as their localization were analyzed. Results. The cultivation of tea calluses in the light was accompanied by their changing-over to photomorphogenesis, which manifested itself in the greening of the cultures and the chloroplasts formation in cells. The greatest efficiency of this process was noted at the high light intensity, which cor-related with the maximum accumulation of polyphenols and flavans, exceeding that in cultures grown at lower light flux values. Consequently, the cul-tivation of tea callus cultures at different light intensities makes it possible to regulate the polyphenols accumulation in them – biologically active plant metabolites with antioxidant activity.

From Ethnobotany to Biotechnology: Wound Healing and Anti-Inflammatory Properties of Sedum telephium L. In Vitro Cultures.

Sedum telephium is a succulent plant used in traditional medicine, particularly in Italy, for its efficacy in treating localized inflammation such as burns, warts, and wounds. Fresh leaves or freshly obtained derivatives are directly applied to the injuries for these purposes. However, challenges such as the lack of microbiologically controlled materials and product standardization prompted the exploration of more controlled biotechnological alternatives, utilizing in vitro plant cell cultures of S. telephium. In the present study, we used HPLC-DAD analysis to reveal a characteristic flavonol profile in juices from in vivo leaves and in vitro materials mainly characterized by several kaempferol and quercetin derivatives. The leaf juice exhibited the highest content in total flavonol and kaempferol derivatives, whereas juice from callus grown in medium with hormones and callus suspensions showed elevated levels of quercetin derivatives. The in vitro anti-inflammatory and wound-healing assays evidenced the great potential of callus and suspension cultures in dampening inflammation and fostering wound closure, suggesting quercetin may have a pivotal role in biological activities.

Recent advances in paclitaxel biosynthesis and regulation.

Paclitaxel (PTX) is a high value plant natural product (PNP) derived from Taxus (yew) species. This plant secondary metabolite (PSM) and its derivatives constitute a cornerstone for the treatment of an increasing variety of cancers. New applications for PTX also continue to emerge, further promoting demand for this WHO designated essential medicine. Here we review recent advances in our understanding of PTX biosynthesis and its cognate regulation, which have been enabled by the development of transcriptomic approaches and the recent sequencing and annotation of three Taxus genomes. Collectively, this has resulted in the elucidation of two functional gene sets for PTX biosynthesis, unlocking new potential for the use of heterologous hosts to produce PTX. Knowledge of the PTX pathway also provides a valuable resource for understanding the regulation of this key PSM. Epigenetic regulation of PSM in plant cell culture (PCC) is a major concern for PTX production, given the loss of PSM production in long-term cell cultures. Recent developments aim to design tools for manipulating epigenetic regulation, potentially providing a means to reverse the silencing of PSM caused by DNA methylation. Exciting times clearly lie ahead for our understanding of this key PSM and improving its production potential.

Micropropagation and phytopathology of calla lily (Zantedeschia spp.)

Calla lily (Zantedeschia spp.) is an herbaceous flowering plant that belongs to the Araceae family, with worldwide distribution. Native to the swampy or mountainous regions of South Africa, it is valued as an ornamental plant due to its extraordinary spathe and decorative leaves. However, its production has decreased due to the presence of diseases. In vitro culture of plant cells and tissues has been successfully applied to precisely diagnose and control diseases to produce disease-free plants. This study analyzes information from in vitro techniques applied to this crop, highlighting phytopathological aspects. It considers the different stages of in vitro culture and the process of obtaining and propagating healthy or pathogen-free plants. In vitro culture has proven to be an effective tool for rapid clonal propagation and multiplication of Zantedeschia spp. Sanitary management before the in vitro culture is recommended.

Влияние 10-(6'-пластохинонил) децилтриметилфосфония (SkQ1) на образование каллусов и регенерацию растений, и их устойчивость к гипоксии

This work investigated the effect of 10-(6'-plastoquinonyl) decyltrimethylphosphonium (SkQ1) on the regeneration, growth and development of cell and tissue cultures of such plants as sugar cane (Saccharum officinarum L.), spring wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), corn (Zea mays L.), tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L.), alfalfa of two species (Medicago glutinosa L.) and (Medicago falcata L.), cornflower (Thalictrum minus L.) and stephania (Stephania glabra Miers.). The stimulating effect of SkQ1 in concentrations from 0.5 to 10 nM has been shown, promoting better shoot and root formation in calli, an increase in growth rate, expressed in the cell mass of calli and their growth index. In addition, the effect of SkQ1 on the resistance of sugarcane calli to hypoxia was studied by assessing the growth index of calli of sensitive and hypoxia-resistant sugarcane lines when incubated under anaerobic conditions. It was shown that in both sensitive and resistant calli grown on a medium supplemented with 10 nM SkQ1, the growth index was 4 and 3.3 times higher, respectively, than in calli cultivated in a medium not containing SkQ1. Keywords: ANTIOXIDANTS, PLASTOQUINONE, 10-(6'-PLASTOQUINONYL) DECYLTRIMETHYLPHOSPHONIUM (SkQ1), CALLUS, EMPLANTS, REGENERATION, SUSPENSION CULTURE, HYPOXIA

Phytosynthesis of silver nanoparticles using aqueous sandalwood (Santalum album L.) leaf extract: Divergent effects of SW-AgNPs on proliferating plant and cancer cells.

The biogenic approach for the synthesis of metal nanoparticles provides an efficient eco-friendly alternative to chemical synthesis. This study presents a novel route for the biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles using aqueous sandalwood (SW) leaf extract as a source of reducing and capping agents under mild, room temperature synthesis conditions. The bioreduction of Ag+ to Ago nanoparticles (SW-AgNPs) was accompanied by the appearance of brown color, with surface plasmon resonance peak at 340-360 nm. SEM, TEM and AFM imaging confirm SW-AgNP's spherical shape with size range of 10-32 nm. DLS indicates a hydrodynamic size of 49.53 nm with predominant negative Zeta potential, which can contribute to the stability of the nanoparticles. FTIR analysis indicates involvement of sandalwood leaf derived polyphenols, proteins and lipids in the reduction and capping of SW-AgNPs. XRD determines the face-centered-cubic crystalline structure of SW-AgNPs, which is a key factor affecting biological functions of nanoparticles. This study is novel in using cell culture methodologies to evaluate effects of SW-AgNPs on proliferating cells originating from plants and human cancer. Exposure of groundnut calli cells to SW-AgNPs, resulted in enhanced proliferation leading to over 70% higher calli biomass over control, enhanced defense enzyme activities, and secretion of metabolites implicated in biotic stress resistance (Crotonyl isothiocyanate, Butyrolactone, 2-Hydroxy-gamma-butyrolactone, Maltol) and plant cell proliferation (dl-Threitol). MTT and NRU were performed to determine the cytotoxicity of nanoparticles on human cervical cancer cells. SW-AgNPs specifically inhibited cervical cell lines SiHa (IC50-2.65 ppm) and CaSki (IC50-9.49 ppm), indicating potential use in cancer treatment. The opposing effect of SW-AgNPs on cell proliferation of plant calli (enhanced cell proliferation) and human cancer cell lines (inhibition) are both beneficial and point to potential safe application of SW-AgNPs in plant cell culture, agriculture and in cancer treatment.

Eye Diseases: When the Solution Comes from Plant Alkaloids.

Plants are an incredible source of metabolites showing a wide range of biological activities. Among these, there are the alkaloids, which have been exploited for medical purposes since ancient times. Nowadays, many plant-derived alkaloids are the main components of drugs used as therapy for different human diseases. This review deals with providing an overview of the alkaloids used to treat eye diseases, describing the historical outline, the plants from which they are extracted, and the clinical and molecular data supporting their therapeutic activity. Among the different alkaloids that have found application in medicine so far, atropine and pilocarpine are the most characterized ones. Conversely, caffeine and berberine have been proposed for the treatment of different eye disorders, but further studies are still necessary to fully understand their clinical value. Lastly, the alkaloid used for managing hypertension, reserpine, has been recently identified as a potential drug for ameliorating retinal disorders. Other important aspects discussed in this review are different solutions for alkaloid production. Given that the industrial production of many of the plant-derived alkaloids still relies on extraction from plants, and the chemical synthesis can be highly expensive and poorly efficient, alternative methods need to be found. Biotechnologies offer a multitude of possibilities to overcome these issues, spanning from genetic engineering to synthetic biology for microorganisms and bioreactors for plant cell cultures. However, further efforts are needed to completely satisfy the pharmaceutical demand.

Light as an elicitor for enhanced production of secondary metabolites in plant cell, tissue, and organ cultures

Light as an elicitor for enhanced production of secondary metabolites in plant cell, tissue, and organ cultures

COMPARATIVE CHROMATOGRAPHIC AND SPECTRAL STUDY OF THE ALKALOID COMPOSITION OF THE BIOMASS OF TISSUE CULTURE AND THE HERB OF GLAUCIUM FLAVUM

Introduction. The culture of plant cells and tissues is an effective technology for obtaining various secondary metabolites, including for use in the pharmaceutical industry. Compounds synthesized in callus and suspension cultures may be identical to plant ones, and the yield of secondary metabolites, in some cases, exceeds plant sources. In this regard, yellow hornpoppy (Glaucium flavum Crantz.) is of great interest, containing glaucin, which has a unique antitussive effect and is a source of a number of medications. The purpose of this study is a comparative phytochemical study of the alkaloid composition of the tissue culture and the herb of Glaucium flavum. Material and methods. Callus tissue cultures of yellow hornpoppy yellow hornpoppy (Glaucium flavum Crantz.) were obtained in the laboratory of the Institute of Pharmacy of Kazan State Medical University. The herb of the Glaucium flavum cultivated on the territory of the Botanical Garden of Samara University was collected during the flowering period of plants in 2021. A comparative study of the alkaloid composition of the callus culture and the herb of Glaucium flavum was carried out by methods of luminescent microscopy on an Altami LUM-2 microscope (Russia), thin-layer chromatography (TLC) on Sorbfil-PTSH-AF-A-UV plates, as well as spectrophotometry. A mixture of solvents n-butanol-acetic acid-water 4:1:2 was used as a solvent system. The detection of separated substances was carried out by scanning chromatographic plates in UV light at a wavelength of 366 and 254 nm, followed by the manifestation of Dragendorf reagent. The identification of the isolated glaucin hydrochloride was carried out on the basis of UV, 1H-NMR, 13C-NMR spectroscopy data. 1H NMR spectra were obtained on the "JNM-ECX 400" device (399.78MHz), 13C NMR spectra were obtained on the "JNM–ECX 400" device (100.52 MHz). The spectra were recorded using a Specord 40 spectrophotometer (Analytik Jena AG, Germany) in the wavelength range of 190-500 nm. Results. During the luminescent analysis of the tissue culture of the Glaucium flavum Crantz., as well as intact plants, the type of luminescence characteristic of isoquinoline alkaloids was noted. Using TLC analysis, isoquinoline alkaloids, including glaucin, were found in samples of callus cultures and the aerial parts of Glaucium flavum, however, a lower glaucin content was noted in the sample of the callus culture compared to that of the intact plant. The spectrophometric analysis of the studied samples showed that the nature of the absorption curve in intact plants and crops of the so-called Glaucium flavum has both common and distinctive features. The UV spectrum of water-alcohol extraction from a sample of Glaucium flavum tissue culture has a similar spectrophotometric profile, however, it contains only one absorption maximum (288 nm), coinciding with that of the UV spectrum of water-alcohol extraction from the herb of this plant. Conclusions. Therefore, the final conclusion regarding the content of glaucin in the studied samples can be made only during the preparative isolation of substances from the biomass of Glaucium flavum using column chromatography

A Review on Plant Tissue Culture

Plant tissue and cell culture involve the aseptic cultivation and propagation of plant cells, tissues, and organs in a meticulously controlled laboratory setting. This innovative method harnesses the potential of nutrient-rich media to efficiently replicate plant cells on a large scale, resulting in the rapid production of mature and disease-free plants. The cornerstone of commercial technology in this field is micropropagation, a process that achieves swift proliferation from minute plant cuttings, axillary buds, and, to a limited extent, from somatic embryos and cell clumps in suspension cultures and bioreactors. Micropropagation, a pivotal aspect of plant tissue and cell culture, holds immense value in generating high-quality and consistent planting materials. These materials find applications across diverse fields, including molecular genetic engineering, plant breeding, horticulture production, and environmental preservation. The process of micropopagation unfolds through several distinct stages, including propagation, subculture of explants for proliferation, shooting and rooting, and hardening. These stages collectively form a universal framework for large-scale multiplication of plants. This technique plays a critical role in overcoming the limitations of traditional plant propagation methods. By allowing for controlled and accelerated growth in a laboratory environment, plant tissue and cell culture contribute to the efficient production of disease-resistant and genetically uniform plant materials. This not only supports advancements in various scientific disciplines but also addresses practical needs in agriculture, horticulture, and environmental conservation. The continuous refinement and application of plant tissue and cell culture methods underscore their significance in meeting the growing demands for sustainable and high-quality plant materials across diverse sectors.

Bioreactor Systems for Plant Cell Cultivation at the Institute of Plant Physiology of the Russian Academy of Sciences: 50 Years of Technology Evolution from Laboratory to Industrial Implications.

The cultivation of plant cells in large-scale bioreactor systems has long been considered a promising alternative for the overexploitation of wild plants as a source of bioactive phytochemicals. This idea, however, faced multiple constraints upon realization, resulting in very few examples of technologically feasible and economically effective biotechnological companies. The bioreactor cultivation of plant cells is challenging. Even well-growing and highly biosynthetically potent cell lines require a thorough optimization of cultivation parameters when upscaling the cultivation process from laboratory to industrial volumes. The optimization includes, but is not limited to, the bioreactor's shape and design, cultivation regime (batch, fed-batch, continuous, semi-continuous), aeration, homogenization, anti-foaming measures, etc., while maintaining a high biomass and metabolite production. Based on the literature data and our experience, the cell cultures often demonstrate cell line- or species-specific responses to parameter changes, with the dissolved oxygen concentration (pO2) and shear stress caused by stirring being frequent growth-limiting factors. The mass transfer coefficient also plays a vital role in upscaling the cultivation process from smaller to larger volumes. The Experimental Biotechnological Facility at the K.A. Timiryazev Institute of Plant Physiology has operated since the 1970s and currently hosts a cascade of bioreactors from the laboratory (20 L) to the pilot (75 L) and a semi-industrial volume (630 L) adapted for the cultivation of plant cells. In this review, we discuss the most appealing cases of the cell cultivation process's adaptation to bioreactor conditions featuring the cell cultures of medicinal plants Dioscorea deltoidea Wall. ex Griseb., Taxus wallichiana Zucc., Stephania glabra (Roxb.) Miers, Panax japonicus (T. Nees) C.A.Mey., Polyscias filicifolia (C. Moore ex E. Fourn.) L.H. Bailey, and P. fruticosa L. Harms. The results of cell cultivation in bioreactors of different types and designs using various cultivation regimes are covered and compared with the literature data. We also discuss the role of the critical factors affecting cell behavior in bioreactors with large volumes.

In Vitro Safety and Efficacy Evaluation of a Juniperus communis Callus Culture Extract and Matricaria recutita Processing Waste Extract Combination as a Cosmetic Ingredient.

For skin health promotion and cosmetic applications, combinations of plant cell extracts are extensively utilized. As most natural ingredient suppliers offer crude extracts from individual plants or specific isolated compounds, the potential interactions between them are assessed in the development phase of cosmetic products. The industry seeks extract combinations that have undergone optimization and scrutiny for their bioactivities. This study presents a combination of two sustainably produced botanical ingredients and outlines their chemical composition, in vitro safety, and bioactivity for skin health enhancement. The amalgamation comprises the extract of Matricaria recutita processing waste and the extract from Juniperus communis callus culture. Chemical analysis revealed distinct compounds within the extracts, and their combination led to a broader array of potentially synergistic compounds. In vitro assessments on skin cells demonstrated that the combination possesses robust antioxidant properties and the ability to stimulate keratinocyte proliferation, along with regulating collagen type I and matrix metalloproteinase 1 (MMP-1) production by dermal fibroblasts. The identified traits of this combination render it an appealing cosmetic component. To the best of our knowledge, this represents the first case when the extracts derived from medicinal plant processing waste and biotechnological plant cell cultivation processes have been combined and evaluated for their bioactivity.

Metabolomics Reveals Rubiadin Accumulation and the Effects of Methyl Jasmonate Elicitation in Damnacanthus major Calli.

Callus suspension techniques have been considered attractive for improving bioactive metabolite productivity; methyl jasmonate (MeJA) is a widely used elicitor for stimulating synthetic pathways. In this study, a multivariate analysis-based metabolomics approach was employed to investigate the primary and specialized metabolites in the leaves, unelicited calli, and 100 or 200 μM MeJA elicited calli of Damnacanthus major. Rubiadin, a powerful anthraquinone with various therapeutic properties, was only identified in D. major calli, accumulating in a MeJA elicitation concentration-dependent manner. Callus cultures also contained high levels of amino acids, sugars, and phenolic compounds, indicating energy metabolism and metabolic adaptation responses for proliferation and stabilization. Regarding MeJA application, elicited calli contained higher amounts of quinic acid, kaempferol, and glucose with lower amounts of sucrose and raffinose than those in the unelicited control, which were closely related to protective mechanisms against MeJA. Moreover, excessive elicitation increased the asparagine, fructose, and raffinose levels and decreased the glucose and sucrose levels, which was ascribed to increased activation of the aminoacyl-tRNA biosynthesis pathway and wider utilization of glucose than of fructose after sucrose degradation. These results will be useful for optimizing plant cell culture techniques to achieve high production rates for valuable specialized metabolites.

Performance of plant-produced RBDs as SARS-CoV-2 diagnostic reagents: a tale of two plant platforms.

The COVID-19 pandemic has underscored the need for rapid and cost-effective diagnostic tools. Serological tests, particularly those measuring antibodies targeting the receptor-binding domain (RBD) of the virus, play a pivotal role in tracking infection dynamics and vaccine effectiveness. In this study, we aimed to develop a simple enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for measuring RBD-specific antibodies, comparing two plant-based platforms for diagnostic reagent production. We chose to retain RBD in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) to prevent potential immunoreactivity issues associated with plant-specific glycans. We produced ER-retained RBD in two plant systems: a stable transformation of BY-2 plant cell culture (BY2-RBD) and a transient transformation in Nicotiana benthamiana using the MagnICON system (NB-RBD). Both systems demonstrated their suitability, with varying yields and production timelines. The plant-made proteins revealed unexpected differences in N-glycan profiles, with BY2-RBD displaying oligo-mannosidic N-glycans and NB-RBD exhibiting a more complex glycan profile. This difference may be attributed to higher recombinant protein synthesis in the N. benthamiana system, potentially overloading the ER retention signal, causing some proteins to traffic to the Golgi apparatus. When used as diagnostic reagents in ELISA, BY2-RBD outperformed NB-RBD in terms of sensitivity, specificity, and correlation with a commercial kit. This discrepancy may be due to the distinct glycan profiles, as complex glycans on NB-RBD may impact immunoreactivity. In conclusion, our study highlights the potential of plant-based systems for rapid diagnostic reagent production during emergencies. However, transient expression systems, while offering shorter timelines, introduce higher heterogeneity in recombinant protein forms, necessitating careful consideration in serological test development.

Plant Tissue Culture and Metabolite Profiling for High-Value Natural Product Synthesis.

The engineering of plant cell cultures to produce high-value natural products is suggested to be a safe, low-cost, and environmentally friendly route to produce a wide range of chemicals. Given that the expression of heterologous biosynthetic pathways in plant tissue culture is limited by a lack of detailed protocols, the biosynthesis of high-value metabolites in plant cell culture is constrained compared with that in microbes. However, both Arabidopsis thaliana and Nicotiana benthamiana can be efficiently transformed with multigene constructs to produce high-value natural products in stable plant cell cultures. This chapter provides a detailed protocol as to how to engineer the plant cell culture as bio-factories for metabolite biosynthesis.

Disposable Bioreactors Used in Process Development and Production Processes with Plant Cell and Tissue Cultures.

The bioreactor is the centerpiece of the upstream processing in any biotechnological production process. Its design, the cultivation parameters, the production cell line, and the culture medium all have a major influence on the efficiency of the process and the result of the cultivation. Disposable bioreactors have been used for the past 20 years, playing a major role in process development and commercial production of high-value substances at medium scales.Our review deals with scalable, disposable bioreactors that have proven to be useful for the cultivation of plant cell and tissue cultures. Based on the definitions of terms and a categorization approach, the most commonly used, commercially available, disposable bioreactor types are presented below. The focus is on wave-mixed, stirred, and orbitally shaken bioreactors. In addition to their instrumentation and bioengineering characteristics, cultivation results are discussed, and emerging trends for the development of disposable bioreactors for plant cell and tissue cultures are also addressed.

Chlorella as the source of biologically active compounds for in vitro plant propagation

The use of nutrient media with an organic composition is a potentially commercially effective way to avoid the use of expensive components of nutrient media while maintaining and increasing the biosynthetic potential of cell cultures of higher plants in vitro. A method has been developed for the in vitro propagating of various taxonomic groups plants. It has been shown that the medium after cultivating chlorella at ¼ MS is optimal for the in vitro plant propagation. The method is intended for in vitro cultivation of seeds, microcuttings and microshoots of plants of different taxonomic groups and can be used for accelerated propagation of valuable plant varieties and hybrids.

An Introduction to Plant Cell, Tissue, and Organ Culture: Current Status and Perspectives.

Plant cell, tissue, and organ cultures (PCTOC) have been used as experimental systems in basic research, allowing gene function demonstration through gene overexpression or repression and investigating the processes involved in embryogenesis and organogenesis or those related to the potential production of secondary metabolites, among others. On the other hand, PCTOC has also been applied at the commercial level for the vegetative multiplication (micropropagation) of diverse plant species, mainly ornamentals but also horticultural crops such as potato or fruit and tree species, and to produce high-quality disease-free plants. Moreover, PCTOC protocols are important auxiliary systems in crop breeding crops to generate pure lines (homozygous) to produce hybrids for the obtention of polyploid plants with higher yields or better performance. PCTOC has been utilized to preserve and conserve the germplasm of different crops or threatened species. Plant genetic improvement through genetic engineering and genome editing has been only possible thanks to the establishment of efficient in vitro plant regeneration protocols. Different companies currently focus on commercializing plant secondary metabolites with interesting biological activities using in vitro PCTOC. The impact of omics on PCTOC is discussed.