Planetary-mass Companions Research Articles

An ALMA Dynamical Mass Estimate of the Proposed Planetary-mass Companion FW Tau C

Abstract Dynamical mass estimates down to the planet-mass regime can help to understand planet formation. We present Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) 1.3 mm observations of FW Tau C, a proposed ∼10 M Jup planet-mass companion at ∼330 au from the host binary FW Tau AB. We spatially and spectrally resolve the accretion disk of FW Tau C in 12CO (2–1). By modeling the Keplerian rotation of gas, we derive a dynamical mass of ∼0.1 M ☉. Therefore, FW Tau C is unlikely a planet, but rather a low-mass star with a highly inclined disk. This also suggests that FW Tau is a triple system consisting of three ∼0.1 M ☉ stars.

A Search for Photometric Variability in the Young T3.5 Planetary-mass Companion GU Psc b

Abstract We present a photometric J-band variability study of GU Psc b, a T3.5 co-moving planetary-mass companion (9–13 ) to a young (∼150 Myr) M3 member of the AB Doradus Moving Group. The large separation between GU Psc b and its host star (42″) provides a rare opportunity to study the photometric variability of a planetary-mass companion. The study presented here is based on observations obtained from 2013 to 2014 over three nights with durations of 5–6 hr each with the WIRCam imager at Canada–France–Hawaii Telescope. Photometric variability with a peak-to-peak amplitude of 4 ± 1% at a timescale of ∼6 hr was marginally detected on 2014 October 11. No high-significance variability was detected on 2013 December 22 and 2014 October 10. The amplitude and timescale of the variability seen here, as well as its evolving nature, is comparable to what was observed for a variety of field T dwarfs and suggests that mechanisms invoked to explain brown dwarf variability may be applicable to low-gravity objects such as GU Psc b. Rotation-induced photometric variability due to the formation and dissipation of atmospheric features such as clouds is a plausible hypothesis for the tentative variation detected here. Additional photometric measurements, particularly on longer timescales, will be required to confirm and characterize the variability of GU Psc b, determine its periodicity and to potentially measure its rotation period.

OGLE-2016-BLG-0263Lb: Microlensing Detection of a Very Low-mass Binary Companion through a Repeating Event Channel

Abstract We report the discovery of a planet-mass companion to the microlens OGLE-2016-BLG-0263L. Unlike most low-mass companions that were detected through perturbations to the smooth and symmetric light curves produced by the primary, the companion was discovered through the channel of a repeating event, in which the companion itself produced its own single-mass light curve after the event produced by the primary had ended. Thanks to the continuous coverage of the second peak by high-cadence surveys, the possibility of the repeating nature due to source binarity is excluded with a 96% confidence level. The mass of the companion estimated by a Bayesian analysis is . The projected primary-companion separation is au. The ratio of the separation to the snow-line distance of corresponds to the region beyond Neptune, the outermost planet of the solar system. We discuss the importance of high-cadence surveys in expanding the range of microlensing detections of low-mass companions and future space-based microlensing surveys.

PSYM-WIDE: A Survey for Large-separation Planetary-mass Companions to Late Spectral Type Members of Young Moving Groups

Abstract We present the results of a direct imaging survey for very large separation (>100 au), low-mass companions around 95 nearby young K5–L5 stars and brown dwarfs. They are high-likelihood candidates or confirmed members of the young (≲150 Myr) β Pictoris and AB Doradus moving groups (ABDMG) and the TW Hya, Tucana–Horologium, Columba, Carina, and Argus associations. Images in and filters were obtained with the Gemini Multi-Object Spectrograph (GMOS) on Gemini South to search for companions down to an apparent magnitude of ∼ 22–24 at separations ≳20″ from the targets and in the remainder of the wide 5.′5 × 5.′5 GMOS field of view. This allowed us to probe the most distant region where planetary-mass companions could be gravitationally bound to the targets. This region was left largely unstudied by past high-contrast imaging surveys, which probed much closer-in separations. This survey led to the discovery of a planetary-mass (9–13 ) companion at 2000 au from the M3V star GU Psc, a highly probable member of ABDMG. No other substellar companions were identified. These results allowed us to constrain the frequency of distant planetary-mass companions (5–13 ) to % (95% confidence) at semimajor axes between 500 and 5000 au around young K5–L5 stars and brown dwarfs. This is consistent with other studies suggesting that gravitationally bound planetary-mass companions at wide separations from low-mass stars are relatively rare.

ALMA Observations of the Young Substellar Binary System 2M1207

Abstract We present ALMA observations of the 2M1207 system, a young binary made of a brown dwarf with a planetary-mass companion at a projected separation of about 40 au. We detect emission from dust continuum at 0.89 mm and from the rotational transition of CO from a very compact disk around the young brown dwarf. The small radius found for this brown dwarf disk may be due to truncation from the tidal interaction with the planetary-mass companion. Under the assumption of optically thin dust emission, we estimate a dust mass of 0.1 M ⊕ for the 2M1207A disk and a 3σ upper limit of ∼1 M Moon for dust surrounding 2M1207b, which is the tightest upper limit obtained so far for the mass of dust particles surrounding a young planetary-mass companion. We discuss the impact of this and other non-detections of young planetary-mass companions for models of planet formation that predict circumplanetary material to surround these objects.

An Upper Limit on the Mass of the Circumplanetary Disk for DH Tau b*

Abstract DH Tau is a young (∼1 Myr) classical T Tauri star. It is one of the few young PMS stars known to be associated with a planetary mass companion, DH Tau b, orbiting at large separation and detected by direct imaging. DH Tau b is thought to be accreting based on copious emission and exhibits variable Paschen Beta emission. NOEMA observations at 230 GHz allow us to place constraints on the disk dust mass for both DH Tau b and the primary in a regime where the disks will appear optically thin. We estimate a disk dust mass for the primary, DH Tau A of , which gives a disk to star mass ratio of 0.014 (assuming the usual gas to dust mass ratio of 100 in the disk). We find a conservative disk dust mass upper limit of 0.42 M ⊕ for DH Tau b, assuming that the disk temperature is dominated by irradiation from DH Tau b itself. Given the environment of the circumplanetary disk, variable illumination from the primary or the equilibrium temperature of the surrounding cloud would lead to even lower disk mass estimates. A MCFOST radiative transfer model, including heating of the circumplanetary disk by DH Tau b and DH Tau A, suggests that a mass-averaged disk temperature of 22 K is more realistic, resulting in a dust disk mass upper limit of 0.09 M ⊕ for DH Tau b. We place DH Tau b in context with similar objects and discuss the consequences for planet formation models.

Generating large misalignments in gapped and binary discs

Many protostellar gapped and binary discs show misalignments between their inner and outer discs; in some cases, $\sim70$ degree misalignments have been observed. Here we show that these misalignments can be generated through a "secular precession resonance" between the nodal precession of the inner disc and the precession of the gap-opening (stellar or massive planetary) companion. An evolving protostellar system may naturally cross this resonance during its lifetime due to disc dissipation and/or companion migration. If resonance crossing occurs on the right timescale, of order a few Myrs, characteristic for young protostellar systems, the inner and outer discs can become highly misaligned ($\gtrsim 60$ degrees). When the primary star has a mass of order a solar mass, generating a significant misalignment typically requires the companion to have a mass of $\sim 0.01-0.1$ M$_\odot$ and an orbital separation of tens of AU. The recently observed companion in the cavity of the gapped, highly misaligned system HD 142527 satisfies these requirements, indicating that a previous resonance crossing event misaligned the inner and outer discs. Our scenario for HD 142527's misaligned discs predicts that the companion's orbital plane is aligned with the outer disc's; this prediction should be testable with future observations as the companion's orbit is mapped out. Misalignments observed in several other gapped disc systems could be generated by the same secular resonance mechanism.

Mid-infrared characterization of the planetary-mass companion ROXs 42B b

We present new Keck/NIRC2 3$-$5 $\mu$m infrared photometry of the planetary-mass companion to ROXS 42B in $L^\prime$, and for the first time in Brackett-$\alpha$ (Br$\alpha$) and in $M_\mathrm{s}$-band. We combine our data with existing near-infrared photometry and $K$-band (2$-$2.4 $\mu$m) spectroscopy and compare these with models and other directly imaged planetary-mass objects using forward modeling and retrieval methods in order to characterize the atmosphere of ROXS 42B b. ROXS 42B b's 1.25$-$5 $\mu$m spectral energy distribution most closely resembles that of GSC 06214 B and $\kappa$ And b, although it has a slightly bluer $K_{\rm s}$$-$$M_{\rm s}$ color than GSC 06214 B and thus so far lacks evidence for a circumplanetary disk. We cannot formally exclude the possibility that any of the tested dust-free/dusty/cloudy forward models describe atmosphere of ROXS 42B b well. However, models with substantial atmospheric dust/clouds yield temperatures and gravities that are consistent when fit to photometry and spectra separately, whereas dust-free model fits to photometry predict temperatures/gravities inconsistent with ROXS 42B b's $K$-band spectrum and vice-versa. Atmospheric retrieval on the 1$-$5 $\mu$m photometry places a limit on the fractional number density of CO$_2$ of $\log(n_{\rm CO_2})<-2.7$ but provides no other constraints so far. We conclude that ROXS 42B b has mid-IR photometric features that are systematically different from other previously observed planetary-mass and field objects of similar temperature. It remains unclear whether this is in the range of the natural diversity of targets at the very young ($\sim$2 Myr) age of ROXS 42B b, or unique to its early evolution and environment.

On the Origin of the Spiral Morphology in the Elias 2–27 Circumstellar Disk

Abstract The young star Elias 2–27 has recently been observed to posses a massive circumstellar disk with two prominent large-scale spiral arms. In this Letter, we perform three-dimensional Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics simulations, radiative transfer modeling, synthetic ALMA imaging, and an unsharped masking technique to explore three possibilities for the origin of the observed structures—an undetected companion either internal or external to the spirals, and a self-gravitating disk. We find that a gravitationally unstable disk and a disk with an external companion can produce morphology that is consistent with the observations. In addition, for the latter, we find that the companion could be a relatively massive planetary-mass companion (≲10–13 M Jup) and located at large radial distances (between ≈300–700 au). We therefore suggest that Elias 2–27 may be one of the first detections of a disk undergoing gravitational instabilities, or a disk that has recently undergone fragmentation to produce a massive companion.

The Exoplanet Simple Orbit Fitting Toolbox (ExoSOFT): An Open-source Tool for Efficient Fitting of Astrometric and Radial Velocity Data

Abstract We present the Exoplanet Simple Orbit Fitting Toolbox (ExoSOFT), a new, open-source suite to fit the orbital elements of planetary or stellar-mass companions to any combination of radial velocity and astrometric data. To explore the parameter space of Keplerian models, ExoSOFT may be operated with its own multistage sampling approach or interfaced with third-party tools such as emcee. In addition, ExoSOFT is packaged with a collection of post-processing tools to analyze and summarize the results. Although only a few systems have been observed with both radial velocity and direct imaging techniques, this number will increase, thanks to upcoming spacecraft and ground-based surveys. Providing both forms of data enables simultaneous fitting that can help break degeneracies in the orbital elements that arise when only one data type is available. The dynamical mass estimates this approach can produce are important when investigating the formation mechanisms and subsequent evolution of substellar companions. ExoSOFT was verified through fitting to artificial data and was implemented using the Python and Cython programming languages; it is available for public download at https://github.com/kylemede/ExoSOFT under GNU General Public License v3.

An ALMA and MagAO Study of the Substellar Companion GQ Lup B∗

Abstract Multi-wavelength observations provide a complementary view of the formation of young, directly imaged planet-mass companions. We report the ALMA 1.3 mm and Magellan adaptive optics Hα, , , and Y S observations of the GQ Lup system, a classical T Tauri star with a substellar companion at ∼110 au projected separation. We estimate the accretion rates for both components from the observed Hα fluxes. In our ∼0.″05 resolution ALMA map, we resolve GQ Lup A’s disk in the dust continuum, but no signal is found from the companion. The disk is compact, with a radius of ∼22 au, a dust mass of ∼6 M ⊕, an inclination angle of ∼56°, and a very flat surface density profile indicative of a radial variation in dust grain sizes. No gaps or inner cavity are found in the disk, so there is unlikely a massive inner companion to scatter GQ Lup B outward. Thus, GQ Lup B might have formed in situ via disk fragmentation or prestellar core collapse. We also show that GQ Lup A’s disk is misaligned with its spin axis, and possibly with GQ Lup B’s orbit. Our analysis on the tidal truncation radius of GQ Lup A’s disk suggests that GQ Lup B’s orbit might have a low eccentricity.

HIDES spectroscopy of bright detached eclipsing binaries from the Kepler field – II. Double- and triple-lined objects

We present the results of our spectroscopic observations of eight detached eclipsing binaries (DEBs), selected from the $Kepler$ Eclipsing Binary Catalog. Radial velocities (RVs) were calculated from high resolution spectra obtained with the HIDES pectrograph, attached to the 1.88-m telescope of the Okayama Astrophysical Observatory, and were used to characterize the targets in combination with the $Kepler$ light curves. For each binary we obtained a full set of orbital and physical parameters, reaching precision below 3% in masses and radii for 5 pairs. By comparing our results with theoretical models, we assess the distance, age and evolutionary status of the researched objects. We also study eclipse timing variations of selected objects, and identify a new system with a $\gamma$Dor pulsator. Two systems are triples, and show lines coming from three components. In one case the motion of the outer star and the perturbation in the RVs of the inner binary are clearly visible and periodical, which allows us to directly calculate the mass of the third star, and inclination of the outer orbit. In the second case we only see a clear motion of the tertiary, and investigate two scenarios: that it is a linear trend coming from the orbital motion around the inner binary, and that it is caused by a planetary mass companion. When possible, we also compare our results with the literature, and conclude that only by combining photometry with RVs it is possible to obtain correct physical parameters of both components of a DEB.

PLANETS AROUND LOW-MASS STARS (PALMS). VI. DISCOVERY OF A REMARKABLY RED PLANETARY-MASS COMPANION TO THE AB DOR MOVING GROUP CANDIDATE 2MASS J22362452+4751425*

ABSTRACT We report the discovery of an extremely red planetary-mass companion to 2MASS J22362452+4751425, a ≈0.6 M ⊙ late-K dwarf likely belonging to the ∼120 Myr AB Doradus moving group. 2M2236+4751 b was identified in multi-epoch NIRC2 adaptive optics imaging at Keck Observatory at a separation of , or 230 ± 20 AU in projection at the kinematic distance of 63 ± 5 pc to its host star. Assuming membership in the AB Dor group, as suggested from its kinematics, the inferred mass of 2M2236+4751 b is 11–14 M Jup. Follow-up Keck/OSIRIS K-band spectroscopy of the companion reveals strong CO absorption similar to other faint red L dwarfs and lacks signs of methane absorption, despite having an effective temperature of ≈900–1200 K. With a (J–K)MKO color of 2.69 ± 0.12 mag, the near-infrared slope of 2M2236+4751 b is redder than all of the HR 8799 planets and instead resembles the ≈23 Myr isolated planetary-mass object PSO J318.5–22, implying that similarly thick photospheric clouds can persist in the atmospheres of giant planets at ages beyond 100 Myr. In near-infrared color–magnitude diagrams, 2M2236+4751 b is located at the tip of the red L dwarf sequence and appears to define the “elbow” of the AB Dor substellar isochrone separating low-gravity L dwarfs from the cooler young T dwarf track. 2M2236+4751 b is the reddest substellar companion to a star and will be a valuable benchmark to study the shared atmospheric properties of young low-mass brown dwarfs and extrasolar giant planets.

MASSIVE: A Bayesian analysis of giant planet populations around low-mass stars

Direct imaging has led to the discovery of several giant planet and brown dwarf companions. These imaged companions populate a mass, separation and age domain (mass>1MJup, orbits>5AU, age<1Gyr) quite distinct from the one occupied by exoplanets discovered by the radial velocity or transit methods. This distinction could pinpoint that different formation mechanisms are at play. We aim at investigating correlations between the host star's mass and the presence of wide-orbit giant planets, and at providing new observational constraints on planetary formation models. We observed 58 young and nearby M-type dwarfs in L'-band with the VLT/NaCo instrument and used ADI algorithms to optimize the sensitivity to planetary-mass companions and to derive the best detection limits. We estimate the probability of detecting a planet as a function of its mass and physical separation around each target. We conduct a Bayesian analysis to determine the frequency of substellar companions orbiting low-mass stars, using a homogenous sub-sample of 54 stars. We derive a frequency of $4.4^{+3.2}_{-1.3}\%$ for companions with masses in the range of 2-80MJup}, and $2.3^{+2.9}_{-0.7}$\% for planetary mass companions (2-14MJup), at physical separations of 8 to 400AU for both cases. Comparing our results with a previous survey targeting more massive stars, we find evidence that substellar companions more massive than 1MJup with a low mass ratio Q with respect to their host star (Q<1%), are less frequent around low-mass stars. This may represent an observational evidence that the frequency of imaged wide-orbit substellar companions is correlated with stellar mass, corroborating theoretical expectations. On the opposite, we show statistical evidence that intermediate-mass ratio (1%<Q<5%) companion with masses >2MJup might be independent from the mass of the host star.

A substellar companion to Pleiades HII 3441

Abstract We find a new substellar companion to the Pleiades member star, Pleiades HII 3441, using the Subaru telescope with adaptive optics. The discovery is made as part of the high-contrast imaging survey to search for planetary-mass and substellar companions in the Pleiades and young moving groups. The companion has a projected separation of 0${^{\prime\prime}_{.}}$49 ± 0${^{\prime\prime}_{.}}$02 (66 ± 2 au) and a mass of 68 ± 5 MJ based on three observations in the J-, H-, and Ks-bands. The spectral type is estimated to be M7 (∼2700 K), and thus no methane absorption is detected in the H band. Our Pleiades observations result in the detection of two substellar companions including one previously reported among 20 observed Pleiades stars, and indicate that the fraction of substellar companions in the Pleiades is about $10.0^{+26.1}_{-8.8}$%. This is consistent with multiplicity studies of both the Pleiades stars and other open clusters.

SEARCHING FOR SCATTERERS: HIGH-CONTRAST IMAGING OF YOUNG STARS HOSTING WIDE-SEPARATION PLANETARY-MASS COMPANIONS

ABSTRACT We have conducted an angular differential imaging survey with NIRC2 at Keck in search of close-in substellar companions to a sample of seven systems with confirmed planetary-mass companions (PMCs) on wide orbits (&gt;50 au). These wide-separation PMCs pose significant challenges to all three possible formation mechanisms: core accretion plus scattering, disk instability, and turbulent fragmentation. We explore the possibility that these companions formed closer in and were scattered out to their present-day locations by searching for other massive bodies at smaller separations. The typical sensitivity for this survey is ΔK ∼ 12.5 at 1″. We identify eight candidate companions, whose masses would reach as low as one Jupiter mass if gravitationally bound. From our multi-epoch astrometry we determine that seven of these are conclusively background objects, while the eighth near DH Tau is ambiguous and requires additional monitoring. We rule out the presence of &gt;7 M Jup bodies in these systems down to 15–50 au that could be responsible for scattering. This result combined with the totality of evidence suggests that dynamical scattering is unlikely to have produced this population of PMCs. We detect orbital motion from the companions ROXs 42B b and ROXs 12 b, and from this determine 95% upper limits on the companions’ eccentricities of 0.58 and 0.83 respectively. Finally, we find that the 95% upper limit on the occurrence rate of additional planets with masses between 5 and 15 M Jup outside of 40 au in systems with PMCs is 54%.

SPECTROSCOPIC CHARACTERIZATION OF HD 95086 b WITH THE GEMINI PLANET IMAGER

ABSTRACT We present new H (1.5–1.8 μm) photometric and K 1 (1.9–2.2 μm) spectroscopic observations of the young exoplanet HD 95086 b obtained with the Gemini Planet Imager. The H-band magnitude has been significantly improved relative to previous measurements, whereas the low-resolution K 1 ( ) spectrum is featureless within the measurement uncertainties and presents a monotonically increasing pseudo-continuum consistent with a cloudy atmosphere. By combining these new measurements with literature photometry, we compare the spectral energy distribution (SED) of the planet to other young planetary-mass companions, field brown dwarfs, and to the predictions of grids of model atmospheres. HD 95086 b is over a magnitude redder in color than 2MASS J12073346–3932539 b and HR 8799 c and d, despite having a similar magnitude. Considering only the near-infrared measurements, HD 95086 b is most analogous to the brown dwarfs 2MASS J2244316+204343 and 2MASS J21481633+4003594, both of which are thought to have dusty atmospheres. Morphologically, the SED of HD 95086 b is best fit by low temperature ( = 800–1300 K), low surface gravity spectra from models which simulate high photospheric dust content. This range of effective temperatures is consistent with field L/T transition objects, but the spectral type of HD 95086 b is poorly constrained between early L and late T due to its unusual position the color–magnitude diagram, demonstrating the difficulty in spectral typing young, low surface gravity substellar objects. As one of the reddest such objects, HD 95086 b represents an important empirical benchmark against which our current understanding of the atmospheric properties of young extrasolar planets can be tested.

HIGH CONTRAST IMAGING WITH SPITZER: CONSTRAINING THE FREQUENCY OF GIANT PLANETS OUT TO 1000 au SEPARATIONS

ABSTRACT We report results of a re-analysis of archival Spitzer IRAC direct imaging surveys encompassing a variety of nearby stars. Our sample is generated from the combined observations of 73 young stars (median age, distance, spectral type = 85 Myr, 23.3 pc, G5) and 48 known exoplanet host stars with unconstrained ages (median distance, spectral type = 22.6 pc, G5). While the small size of Spitzer provides a lower resolution than 8 m class AO-assisted ground-based telescopes, which have been used for constraining the frequency of 0.5–13 M J planets at separations of 10–102 au, its exquisite infrared sensitivity provides the ability to place unmatched constraints on the planetary populations at wider separations. Here we apply sophisticated high-contrast techniques to our sample in order to remove the stellar point-spread function and to open up sensitivity to planetary mass companions down to 5″ separations. This enables sensitivity to 0.5–13 M J planets at physical separations on the order of 102–103 au, allowing us to probe a parameter space that has not previously been systematically explored to any similar degree of sensitivity. Based on a color and proper motion analysis, we do not record any planetary detections. Exploiting this enhanced survey sensitivity, employing Monte Carlo simulations with a Bayesian approach, and assuming a mass distribution of , we constrain (at 95% confidence) a population of 0.5–13 M J planets at separations of 100–1000 au with an upper frequency limit of 9%.

ORBITAL STABILITY OF MULTI-PLANET SYSTEMS: BEHAVIOR AT HIGH MASSES

ABSTRACT In the coming years, high-contrast imaging surveys are expected to reveal the characteristics of the population of wide-orbit, massive, exoplanets. To date, a handful of wide planetary mass companions are known, but only one such multi-planet system has been discovered: HR 8799. For low mass planetary systems, multi-planet interactions play an important role in setting system architecture. In this paper, we explore the stability of these high mass, multi-planet systems. While empirical relationships exist that predict how system stability scales with planet spacing at low masses, we show that extrapolating to super-Jupiter masses can lead to up to an order of magnitude overestimate of stability for massive, tightly packed systems. We show that at both low and high planet masses, overlapping mean-motion resonances trigger chaotic orbital evolution, which leads to system instability. We attribute some of the difference in behavior as a function of mass to the increasing importance of second order resonances at high planet–star mass ratios. We use our tailored high mass planet results to estimate the maximum number of planets that might reside in double component debris disk systems, whose gaps may indicate the presence of massive bodies.

The orbit of beta Pictoris b as a transiting planet

In 1981, Beta Pictoris showed strong and rapid photometric variations possibly due to a transiting giant planet. Later, a planetary mass companion to the star, Beta Pic b, was identified using imagery. Observations at different epochs (2003 and 2009-2015) detected the planet at a projected distance of 6 to 9 AU from the star and showed that the planet is on an edge-on orbit. The observed motion is consistent with an inferior conjunction in 1981, and Beta Pic b can be the transiting planet proposed to explain the photometric event observed at that time. Assuming that the 1981 event is related to the transit or the inferior conjunction of Beta Pic b on an edge-on orbit, we search for the planetary orbit in agreement with all the measurements of the planet position published so far. We find two different orbits that are compatible with all these constraints: (i) an orbit with a period of 17.97$\pm$0.08 years along with an eccentricity of around 0.12 and (ii) an orbit with a period of 36.38$\pm$0.13 years and a larger eccentricity of about 0.32. In the near future, new imaging observations should allow us to discriminate between these two different orbits. We also estimate the possible dates for the next transits, which could take place as early as 2017 or 2018, even for a long-period orbit.