Plan Enactment Research Articles

Building on Existing Classifications of Behavior Change Techniques to Classify Planned Coping Strategies: Physical Activity Diary Study.

When trying to be more physically active, preparing for possible barriers by considering potential coping strategies increases the likelihood of plan enactment. Digital interventions can support this process by providing personalized recommendations for coping strategies, but this requires that possible coping strategies are identified and classified. Existing classification systems of behavior change, such as the compendium of self-enactable techniques, may be reused to classify coping strategies in the context of physical activity (PA) coping planning. This study investigated whether coping strategies created by a student population to overcome barriers to be physically active can be mapped onto the compendium of self-enactable techniques and which adaptations or additions to the frameworks are needed. In total, 359 Flemish university students created action and coping plans for PA for 8 consecutive days in 2020, resulting in 5252 coping plans. A codebook was developed iteratively using the compendium of self-enactable techniques as a starting point to code coping strategies. Additional codes were added to the codebook iteratively. Interrater reliability was calculated, and descriptive statistics were provided for the coping strategies. Interrater reliability was moderate (Cohen κ=0.72) for the coded coping strategies. Existing self-enactable techniques covered 64.6% (3393/5252) of the coded coping strategies, and added coping strategies covered 28.52% (n=1498). The remaining coping strategies could not be coded as entries were too vague or contained no coping strategy. The added classes covered multiple ways of adapting the original action plan, managing one's time, ensuring the availability of required material, and doing the activity with someone else. When exploring the data further, we found that almost half (n=2371, 45.1%) of the coping strategies coded focused on contextual factors. The study's objective was to categorize PA coping strategies. The compendium of self-enactable techniques addressed almost two-thirds (3393/5252, 64.6%) of these strategies, serving as valuable starting points for classification. In total, 9 additional strategies were integrated into the self-enactable techniques, which are largely absent in other existing classification systems. These new techniques can be seen as further refinements of "problem-solving" or "coping planning." Due to data constraints stemming from the COVID-19 pandemic and the study's focus on a healthy Flemish student population, it is anticipated that more coping strategies would apply under normal conditions, in the general population, and among clinical groups. Future research should expand to diverse populations and establish connections between coping strategies and PA barriers, with ontologies recommended for this purpose. This study is a first step in classifying the content of coping strategies for PA. We believe this is an important and necessary step toward digital health interventions that incorporate personalized suggestions for PA coping plans.

Young Creative Entrepreneur Pathways: COVID-19 and the Creative Industry Sectors

The main purpose of this paper was to propose a strategic conceptual framework using the Theory of Planned Behavior in the context of entrepreneurship intention among young creative entrepreneurs. The dynamic environment of the COVID-19 pandemic has significantly affected the cultural resilience of art and design. The present study identified eight hypotheses for pathways of strategic direction for young creative entrepreneurs within and after the pandemic. The conceptual framework developed examines the influence of entrepreneurship education on attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control. Furthermore, this study also outlines guidance for young creative entrepreneurs based on attitudes toward entrepreneurship intention, entrepreneurship self-identity, subjective norms surrounding entrepreneurship intention, perceived behavioral control, and entrepreneurship commitment and enactment.
 Keywords: entrepreneurship education, Theory of Planned Behavior, entrepreneurship self-identity, entrepreneurship plan enactment, entrepreneurship commitment

Habit formation following routine-based versus time-based cue planning: A randomized controlled trial.

Habit formation has been identified as one of the key determinants of behaviour change. To initiate habit formation, self-regulation interventions can support individuals to form a cue-behaviour plan and to repeatedly enact the plan in the same context. This randomized controlled trial aimed to model habit formation of an everyday nutrition behaviour and examined whether habit formation and plan enactment differ when individuals plan to enact their behaviour in response to a routine-based versus time-based cue. Following a baseline assessment, N=192 adults (aged 18-77years) were randomly assigned to a routine-based cue or a time-based cue planning intervention, in which they selected an everyday nutrition behaviour and linked it to a daily routine or a time cue. Participants responded to daily questionnaires over 84days assessing plan enactment and the behaviour's automaticity (as an indicator of habit formation). Multilevel models with days nested in participants were fitted. As indicated by asymptotic curves, it took a median of 59days for participants who successfully formed habits to reach peak automaticity. Group-level analyses revealed that both routine-based and time-based cue planning led to increases in automaticity and plan enactment, but no between-condition differences were found. Repeated plan enactment was a key predictor for automaticity. Linking one's nutrition behaviour to a daily routine or a specific time was similarly effective for habit formation. Interventions should encourage persons to repeatedly carry out their planned behaviour in response to the planned cue to facilitate habit formation.

In Lieu of Smoking: Are Smokers More Likely to Enact Certain Types of Implementation Intention Plans During a JIT Smoking Cessation?

To identify actionable and effective implementation intention (II) plans, we examined whether (a) IIs suggesting food or nicotine-based substitution strategies to help quit smoking cigarettes would be more likely to be enacted in real time, (b) IIs reminding participants to cognitively motivate themselves or engage in solitary activity would be more likely to be enacted than those suggesting seeking social support, and (c) II plan enactment based on the above strategies would be associated with reporting momentary lapse avoidance. A sample of 57 Asian American young adult (18-25years) smokers participated in a 4-week, mobile-based smoking cessation intervention, implemented in a Just-In-Time framework. User-specified IIs were categorized into nature of activity (cognitively motivate themselves, engage in solitary activity, seek social support) and type of substitution strategy (food, nicotine, no substitution). Outcome variable was momentary enactment of the given II. Generalized mixed linear models were used for analyses. IIs reminding participants to cognitively motivate themselves and/or engage in solitary activities were more likely to be enacted than IIs recommending seeking social support. IIs recommending nicotine-based substitution were more likely to be enacted than IIs that did not specify any substitution. IIs suggesting food-based substitution, however, were less likely to be enacted than those not suggesting a specific substitution. II plan enactment based on the above strategies was significantly associated with avoiding momentary lapses compared to when momentary lapses occurred. Specifying II recommendations found to be helpful with avoiding lapses in a smoking cessation context, can increase chances of II enactment, and improve overall health intervention outcomes.

Plan Implementation Challenges in a Shrinking City

Problem, research strategy, and findings: In 2005, Youngstown (OH) released a widely publicized comprehensive plan, the Youngstown 2010 Citywide Plan. This plan emphasized “smart shrinkage,” reflecting the city’s downsized built environment and reduced population. In 2013 the city released the Youngstown Redevelopment Code, which was zoning intended to implement the comprehensive plan. In this study we measure whether the comprehensive plan conformed with the Youngstown Redevelopment Code by comparing land use designations on a parcel-by-parcel basis between the comprehensive plan, the pre-2013 code, and the Youngstown Redevelopment Code. To better understand the causality of conformance, we conducted semistructured interviews with framers of the comprehensive plan and the Youngstown Redevelopment Code documents. We find weak conformance between the comprehensive plan and the Youngstown Redevelopment Code; most of the comprehensive plan’s downsizing recommendations were unimplemented. There was close conformance between the pre-2013 code and the Youngstown Redevelopment Code, and most of the differences between them reflected the comprehensive plan’s recommendations. Informants attribute the weak conformance between the comprehensive plan and the Youngstown Redevelopment Code to many of the former’s ideas not being legally defensible. Changing political regimes, shifts in public opinion, and the driving need for economic investment were also cited as contributors to this weak conformance.Takeaway for practice: Our findings indicate that implementing smart shrinkage land use recommendations in shrinking cities is likely to be challenging because legislators may resist codification of reduced populations and lessened economic capacity. Translating comprehensive plan ideas into zoning regulations may be subject to political, social, economic, and legal forces that limit plan enactment. These findings may apply to all cases where comprehensive plans require translation into zoning regulations for implementation. Local government officials and planners should consider these constraints on plan implementation through zoning when they are framing comprehensive plan strategies.

Exertional Heat-Stroke Preparedness in High School Football by Region and State Mandate Presence

Exertional heat stroke (EHS) is a leading cause of sudden death in high school football players. Preparedness strategies can mitigate EHS incidence and severity. To examine EHS preparedness among high school football programs and its association with regional and state preseason heat-acclimatization mandates. Cross-sectional study. Preseason high school football programs, 2017. A total of 910 athletic trainers (ATs) working with high school football (12.7% completion rate). We acquired data on high school football programs' EHS preparedness strategies in the 2017 preseason via an online questionnaire, looking at (1) whether schools' state high school athletic associations mandated preseason heat-acclimatization guidelines and (2) heat safety region based on warm-season wet-bulb globe temperature, ranging from the milder region 1 to the hotter region 3. Six EHS-preparedness strategies were assessed: EHS recognition and treatment education; policy for initiating emergency medical services response; emergency response plan enactment; immersion tub filled with ice water before practice; wet-bulb globe temperature monitoring; and hydration access. Multivariable binomial regression models estimated the prevalence of reporting all 6 strategies. Overall, 27.5% of ATs described their schools as using all 6 EHS-preparedness strategies. The highest prevalence was in region 3 schools with state mandates (52.9%). The multivariable model demonstrated an interaction in which the combination of higher heat safety region and presence of a state mandate was associated with a higher prevalence of reporting all 6 strategies (P = .05). Controlling for AT and high school characteristics, the use of all 6 strategies was higher in region 3 schools with state mandates compared with region 1 schools without state mandates (52.9% versus 17.8%; prevalence ratio = 2.68; 95% confidence interval = 1.81, 3.95). Our findings suggest a greater use of EHS-preparedness strategies in environmentally warmer regions with state-level mandates for preseason heat acclimatization. Future researchers should identify factors influencing EHS preparedness, particularly in regions 1 and 2 and in states without mandates.

What makes a good action plan? Characteristics and enactment of fruit and vegetable plans

BackgroundOne promising intervention strategy to increase fruit and vegetable (FV) consumption is action planning. However, conditions of successful plan enactment, i.e., the translation of plans into action, have rarely been studied. Therefore, the relationship between plan characteristics and plan enactment is being examined. MethodsSecondary analyses of an existing data set were conducted, based on a larger behavioral intervention study with a baseline assessment as well as a 2-weeks and a 4-weeks follow-up. After baseline assessment, participants completed action plan calendars for the following seven days and subsequently reported on each plan's enactment. Two independent raters coded 1732 morning, noon/afternoon, and evening plans by n = 92 individuals regarding the level of specificity (unspecific vs. specific) and type of planned behavior (fruit vs. vegetable intake). To predict plan enactment, multilevel logistic regression analyses were conducted. FindingsOverall specificity of plans was unrelated to plan enactment, but interacted with time of day in predicting plan enactment. Only in the morning, specific plans were more likely being enacted than unspecific plans. Overall, plan enactment decreased during the day and throughout the seven days of the plan calendar. Furthermore, fruit plans were more likely being enacted than vegetable plans. DiscussionSpecific morning plans were found most beneficial for the enactment of FV plans. Here, possible underlying mechanisms such as stable morning routines should be further investigated. Moreover, the nutritional choice appeared to make a difference for plan enactment: Increasing one's fruit consumption may be easier than integrating more vegetables into one's daily diet.

The determinants of goal realization and the significant role of self-efficacy in the Malaysian franchise industry

The franchising industry in Malaysia is worth more than RM27 billion in 2017 and is rising. However, the local franchisees are still lagging behind their international players in their home country. Hence, the objective of this study is to determine the factors that lead to the innovative goal realization of the local food franchisees. This study utilizes quantitative research design by distributing 400 questionnaires consisting of measurement for seven latent variables.The instruments consist of 45 items adapted to suit the local franchise industry using a 7-point Likert scale. A response rate of 42% (169) was obtained and the data were analyzed using structural equation modeling (SEM) in AMOS. The path model demonstrates that nine relationships are significant out of twelve hypotheses examined. It signifies that to achieve goal realization, a franchisee needs to undergo a process. It started from goal desire and ends with goal realization. Self-efficacy and goal desire significantly affect goal intention which subsequently effect implementation desire. Next, implementation desire influence implementation intention and self-efficacy. Subsequently, implementation intention and self-efficacy influence plan enactment. Finally, implementation desire and plan enactment are the two significant factors influencing innovative goal realization.

From action planning and plan enactment to fruit consumption: moderated mediation effects

ObjectivesSufficient fruit consumption is beneficial for a healthy live. While many Dutch adults intent to eat the recommended amount of fruit, only 5–10% of the population actually adheres to the recommendation. One mechanism that can help to narrow this gap between intention and actual fruit consumption is action planning. However, action planning is only assumed to be effective if plans are enacted. This study assessed which action plans are made and enacted, and further aimed to investigate two main hypotheses: 1. the effect of action planning (at T1) on fruit consumption (at T2) is mediated by plan enactment (at T3); 2. positive intentions (2a), high self-efficacy (2b) and a strong habit to eat fruit (2c) enhance the mediation of plan enactment, whereas a strong habit to eat snacks (2d) hinders the mediation of plan enactment.MethodsThis study was a self-reported longitudinal online survey study. A total of 428 participants filled in a survey, measuring demographic factors (e.g. gender, age, education level), several socio-cognitive constructs (i.e. attitudes, self-efficacy, habit, action planning, plan enactment), and fruit consumption, at three points in time (baseline, after 1 month, and after 3 months). Mediation and moderated mediation analyses were used to investigate the planning-plan enactment- fruit consumption relationship.ResultsUp to 70% of the participants reported to have enacted their T1 action plans at T2. Action planning on fruit consumption was fully mediated by plan enactment (Hypothesis 1). All four proposed moderators (i.e. intention, self-efficacy, habit to consume fruit, and habit to consume snacks) significantly influenced the mediation (Hypotheses 2a-2d). Mediation of plan enactment was only present with high levels of intention, high levels of self-efficacy, strong habits to eat fruit, and weak habits to eat snacks.ConclusionThe study suggests the importance of plan enactment for fruit consumption. Furthermore, it emphasizes the necessity of facilitating factors. High levels of intention, self-efficacy and a strong habit to consume fruit clearly aid the enactment of action plans. This suggests that when these factors are moderately low, plan enactment may fail and thus an intervention may require first steps to foster these moderating factors.

What contributes to action plan enactment? Examining characteristics of physical activity plans.

Individuals with chronic conditions can benefit from formulating action plans to engage in regular physical activity. However, the content and the successful translation of plans into action, so-called plan enactment, are rarely adequately evaluated. The aim of this study was to describe the content of user-specified plans and to examine whether participants were more likely to enact their plans if these plans were highly specific, viable, and instrumental. The study presents secondary analyses from a larger behavioural intervention in cardiac and orthopaedic rehabilitation. The content of 619 action plans from 229 participants was evaluated by two independent raters (i.e., qualitative analyses and ratings of specificity) and by participants themselves (i.e., instrumentality and viability). Plan enactment was also measured via self-reports. Multilevel analyses examined the relationship between these plan characteristics and subsequent plan enactment, and between plan enactment and aggregated physical activity. Participants preferred to plan leisure-time physical activities anchored around time-based cues. Specificity of occasion cues (i.e., when to act) and highly instrumental plans were positively associated with plan enactment. Interestingly, individuals who planned less specific behavioural responses (i.e., what to do) were more likely to enact their plans. Plan enactment was positively associated with aggregated behaviour. Interventions should not only emphasize the importance of planning, but also the benefits of formulating specific contextual cues. Planning of the behavioural response seems to require less precision. Allowing for some flexibility in executing the anticipated target behaviour seems to aid successful plan enactment. Statement of Contribution What is already known on this subject? Action planning interventions are efficacious in promoting health behaviour. Characteristics of plan content (i.e., specificity) matter for unconditional behaviour change. Plan enactment (i.e., degree to which plan is followed through) is positively linked to behaviour change. What does this study add? Specificity of occasion cues (i.e., when to act) and highly instrumental plans were positively associated with plan enactment. Individuals who planned less specific behavioural responses (i.e., what to do) were more likely to enact their plans. Planning interventions should focus on specificity of context cues but flexibility of behavioural action.

Which characteristics of planning matter? Individual and dyadic physical activity plans and their effects on plan enactment

ObjectivePast research supports individual planning as an effective intervention strategy to increase physical activity in individuals. A similar strategy, dyadic planning, adds a planning partner who supports an individual's planning processes. Whether the two planning formats differ in terms of participants' entered plan content and whether and how different content characteristics are linked to plan enactment remains unknown. By investigating the content of generated plans, this study aimed at distinguishing plan characteristics of the two planning formats and examining their role as predictors of later plan enactment. MethodsSecondary analyses of a three-arm RCT with German couples (data collection between 2013 and 2015). Couples were assigned to an individual (IPC, n = 114) or dyadic planning condition (DPC, n = 111) and formulated up to 5 physical activity plans for a target person. Couples assigned to a control condition were not included as they did not generate plans. The following characteristics were distinguished and coded for each plan: number of planned opportunities, presence of a planned routine, planned cue- or activity-related specificity, activity-related intensity, and chronological plan rank. One week before (T0) and two weeks following (T2) the intervention (T1), increase vs. no increase of the planned activity was coded as a dichotomous plan enactment variable. Multilevel logistic regressions were fit. ResultsPlan enactment was higher in dyadic than in individual planners. Findings indicated that routines (e.g., after work) were positively related to plan enactment, whereas a high specificity of when-cues (e.g., Friday at 6.30 p.m.) showed a negative relationship. None of the examined plan characteristics could explain differences in enactment between IPC and DPC. ConclusionsLinking health behaviours to other behavioural routines seems beneficial for subsequent plan enactment. Dyadic planning was linked with higher enactment rates than individual planning. However, as mechanisms underlying this effect remain unclear, they should be investigated further.

Organizing for the Big One: A Review of Case Studies and a Research Agenda for Multi‐Agency Disaster Response

Disaster response operations require the cooperation of agencies that seldom interact in their daily operations. The result is a complex coordination problem, which has been in the focus of many case studies. In an effort to facilitate cross‐case learning, this study presents a review of empirical studies on the multi‐agency coordination of disaster response operations. The review covers 80 empirical studies and highlights the importance of training, expertise, planning and plan enactment, leadership and personal acquaintance between the actors in emergent multi‐agency response networks. The analysis results also show that while some areas have received extensive coverage in scholarly publications (e.g., training, skills), a number of important topics have yet to be studied in sufficient depth (e.g., leadership and role taking, plan enactment). Based on these insights, a research agenda is proposed and a number of recommendations for practical disaster response management are made.

Future thinking improves prospective memory performance and plan enactment in older adults.

Efficient intention formation might improve prospective memory by reducing the need for resource-demanding strategic processes during the delayed performance interval. The present study set out to test this assumption and provides the first empirical assessment of whether imagining a future action improves prospective memory performance equivalently at different stages of the adult lifespan. Thus, younger (n = 40) and older (n = 40) adults were asked to complete the Dresden Breakfast Task, which required them to prepare breakfast in accordance with a set of rules and time restrictions. All participants began by generating a plan for later enactment; however, after making this plan, half of the participants were required to imagine themselves completing the task in the future (future thinking condition), while the other half received standard instructions (control condition). As expected, overall younger adults outperformed older adults. Moreover, both older and younger adults benefited equally from future thinking instructions, as reflected in a higher proportion of prospective memory responses and more accurate plan execution. Thus, for both younger and older adults, imagining the specific visual-spatial context in which an intention will later be executed may serve as an easy-to-implement strategy that enhances prospective memory function in everyday life.

Use of action planning to increase provision of smoking cessation care by general practitioners: role of plan specificity and enactment.

BackgroundStrategies are needed to help general practitioners (GPs) promote smoking cessation as recommended by guidelines. This study examines whether the quality of action planning among GPs improves their provision of smoking cessation care.MethodsThe effectiveness of a 1-h training programme was examined in a cluster randomised controlled trial in which 49 GPs participated. GPs who followed the training (intervention group; n = 25) formulated action plans related to i) enquiring about smoking, ii) advising to quit smoking, and iii) arranging follow-up for smokers motivated to quit. GPs also formulated a coping plan for encountering smokers not motivated to quit. The quality of these plans (plan specificity) was rated and, 6 weeks after the training, GPs reported on the performance of these plans (plan enactment). Multilevel regression analyses were used to examine the effects of plan specificity and plan enactment on patient-reported smoking cessation activities of the GPs in the intervention group (n = 1,632 patients) compared with the control group (n = 1,769 patients).ResultsCompared to the control group, GPs who formulated a highly specific action plan during the training asked their patients about smoking more often after the training compared to prior to the training (OR 2.11, 95% CI 1.51–2.95). GPs were most likely to have asked patients about smoking after the training compared to prior to the training when they had enacted a highly specific formulated action plan (OR 3.08, 95% CI 2.04–4.64). The effects of GP plan specificity and plan enactment on asking patient about smoking were most prominent among GPs who, at baseline, intended to provide smoking cessation care.ConclusionsA highly specific action plan formulated by a GP on when, how, and by whom patients will be asked about smoking had a positive effect on GPs’ asking patients about smoking, especially when these professionals also reported to have enacted this plan. This effect was most prominent among GPs who intended to provide smoking cessation care prior to the intervention. Training in devising personalised coping plans is recommended to further increase GPs’ provision of advice to quit smoking and arranging follow-up support to quit smoking.

Predictors of successful and unsuccessful quit attempts among smokers motivated to quit

IntroductionDespite their positive motivation to quit, many smokers do not attempt to quit or relapse soon after their quit attempt. This study investigated the predictors of successful and unsuccessful quit attempts among smokers motivated to quit smoking. MethodsWe conducted secondary data analysis among respondents motivated to quit within 6months, randomized to the control group (N=570) of a Web-based smoking cessation intervention study. Using chi-square tests and ANOVA with Tukey post hoc comparisons, we investigated baseline differences by smoking status (successful quitter/relapse/persistent smoker) assessed after 6weeks (N=214). To identify independent predictors of smoking status, multivariate multinomial logistic regression analyses were conducted. ResultsSuccessful quitters at 6-week follow-up (26%) had reported significantly higher baseline levels of self-efficacy than relapsers (45%) and persistent smokers (29%). Furthermore, both successful quitters and relapsers had reported a significantly higher baseline intention to quit than persistent smokers and successful quitters had reported significantly more preparatory planning at baseline than persistent smokers. Results from regression analyses showed that smokers' baseline intention to quit positively predicted quit attempts reported after 6weeks, while self-efficacy positively predicted quit attempt success. ConclusionsDifferent factors appear to play a role in predicting quit attempts and their success. Whereas intention to quit only appeared to play a role in predicting quit attempts, self-efficacy was the main factor predicting quit attempt success. More research is needed to determine the role of preparatory planning and plan enactment and to investigate whether these findings can be replicated on the long term.

The role of action planning and plan enactment for smoking cessation

BackgroundSeveral studies have reemphasized the role of action planning. Yet, little attention has been paid to the role of plan enactment. This study assesses the determinants and the effects of action planning and plan enactment on smoking cessation.MethodsOne thousand and five participants completed questionnaires at baseline and at follow-ups after one and six months. Factors queried were part of the I-Change model. Descriptive analyses were used to assess which plans were enacted the most. Multivariate linear regression analyses were used to assess whether the intention to quit smoking predicted action planning and plan enactment, and to assess which factors would predict quitting behavior. Subsequently, both multivariate and univariate regression analyses were used to assess which particular action plans would be most effective in predicting quitting behavior. Similar analyses were performed among a subsample of smokers prepared to quit within one month.ResultsSmokers who intended to quit smoking within the next month had higher levels of action planning than those intending to quit within a year. Additional predictors of action planning were being older, being female, having relatively low levels of cigarette dependence, perceiving more positive and negative consequences of quitting, and having high self-efficacy toward quitting. Plan enactment was predicted by baseline intention to quit and levels of action planning. Regression analysis revealed that smoking cessation after six months was predicted by low levels of depression, having a non-smoking partner, the intention to quit within the next month, and plan enactment. Only 29% of the smokers who executed relatively few plans had quit smoking versus 59% of the smokers who executed many plans. The most effective preparatory plans for smoking cessation were removing all tobacco products from the house and choosing a specific date to quit.ConclusionMaking preparatory plans to quit smoking is important because it also predicts plan enactment, which is predictive of smoking cessation. Not all action plans were found to be predictive of smoking cessation. The effects of planning were not very much different between the total sample and smokers prepared to quit within one month.

How formulating implementation plans and remembering past actions facilitate the enactment of effortful decisions

AbstractBuilding on prior research studying effortful decision making and enactment processes (Bagozzi, Dholakia, & Basuroy, 2003; BDB), we identify and provide an in‐depth understanding of two specific self‐regulatory strategies: (1) formulating an implementation plan, and (2) remembering past actions, that decision makers can use in facilitating enactment of effortful decisions. The results of three experiments, in which the decision maker's goal and self‐regulatory strategy were manipulated, showed that for goals that decision makers chose volitionally, the motivational effects of both these strategies lay in increasing levels of proximal implementation‐related variables (implementation intentions, plan completeness, plan enactment, and goal realization) significantly. In contrast, for goals that were assigned to participants, these strategies' motivational effects additionally extended to significantly increasing distal goal‐related variables (goal desire, goal intentions, perceived self‐efficacy, and implementation desires). The theoretical implications of our findings are discussed, and future research opportunities are explored. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Planning Skills and Negotiator Goal Accomplishment

Scholars recognize that planning is an essential part of negotiation, but research provides limited insight into the nature of effective negotiation planning. This research is focused on the skills necessary for effective negotiation planning. It is argued that the information processing tendencies of high self-monitors make them particularly adept at planning for negotiations. The authors extend existing work in planning by relating self-monitoring to plan generation, plan enactment, and plan consequences. Results indicate that self-monitoring is related to prenegotiation goal commitment, planning of impression management strategies, planning of integrative tactics, and plan complexity. During negotiations, high self-monitors are more likely to engage in argumentation. However, they are not especially inclined to engage in more information seeking or rapport building. High self-monitors are better able to accomplish negotiation goals, and this appears to be the result of their superior planning skills. Results have implications for plan-based theorizing and for practicing negotiators.