Quagga Research Articles

THE USE OF ALTRENOGEST TO CONTROL AGGRESSION IN A MALE GRANT'S ZEBRA (EQUUS BURCHELLI BOEHMI)

A male Grant's Zebra (Equus burchelli boehmi) housed with two mares at the Indianapolis Zoo had a 9-yr history of intermittent aggressive behavior toward mares and other animals. Periods of separation allowed the mares time to heal after sustaining superficial bite wounds. On 26 March 2003, the male (890293) was started on altrenogest at a dosage of 19.8 mg orally once daily to allow reintroduction. The dosage was doubled (40 mg once a day) because of a perceived lack of response. Reintroduction to the mares occurred on 17 May 2003 with no signs of aggression noted. Treatment was reduced to 19.8 mg orally once a day and then discontinued. Altrenogest was restarted at 39.5 mg orally once a day because of the planned introduction of a new mare. There have been no major aggressive displays at this dosage of altrenogest and the dosage has recently been reduced following successful introduction of a new mare.

Severe Streptococcus infection in spotted hyenas in the Ngorongoro Crater, Tanzania

In a population of spotted hyenas ( Crocuta crocuta) monitored between 1996 and 2005 in the Ngorongoro Crater, Tanzania, 16 individuals from five of eight social groups displayed clinical signs of an infection, including severe unilateral swelling of the head followed by abscess formation at the mandibular angle, respiratory distress, mild ataxia, and lethargy. Two (12.5%) of these 16 individuals died within days of developing signs. Clinical signs in hyenas were first noted in 2001, and most cases occurred between September 2002 and February 2003, suggesting an outbreak of infection during this period. Histopathological examination of internal organs from one hyena that died with signs revealed morphological changes consistent with severe bacterial infection. Phenotypic examination and phylogenetic analysis of the 16S rRNA gene of the causative agent of infection revealed a Lancefield group C Streptococcus with a high level of homology to S. equi subsp. ruminatorum, a subspecies of S. equi recently described in domestic sheep ( Ovis aries) and goats ( Capra hircus) with mastitis in Spain. Strains similar to this bacterium were also isolated from two hyenas without obvious clinical signs, suggesting that hyenas may be ‘carriers’ of this bacterium, and from a sympatric Burchell's zebra ( Equus burchelli), a herbivore species often consumed by hyenas. To our knowledge this is the first report of a Streptococcus infection in these two wildlife species. The high genetic similarity between the hyena and zebra isolates indicates that inter-specific transmission may occur, possibly when hyenas consume infected zebra carcasses.

VARIATION IN INCIDENCE OF MALE INFANTICIDE WITHIN SUBSPECIES OF PLAINS ZEBRA (EQUUS BURCHELLI)

Social organization seems to determine the occurrence of male infanticide in equids. Although, no information concerning social organization of the maneless zebra (Equus burchelli borensis) has been available, we presumed that the occurrence of infanticide would be the same across all subspecies of plains zebra. We examined the occurrence of this phenomenon in 9 herds of 4 subspecies: the maneless zebra, Grant’s zebra (E. burchelli boehmi), Chapmann’s zebra (E. b. chapmanni), and the Damara zebra (E. b. antiquorum) at 4 zoos. The probability of a foal’s death was affected by the presence of a new male and subspecies. Except for the maneless zebra, all subspecies showed existence of male infanticide. We found no occurrence of male infanticide in maneless zebras, which suggests a different social system. This would also support the subspecific status of the maneless zebra.

Evolutionary movement of centromeres in horse, donkey, and zebra

Centromere repositioning (CR) is a recently discovered biological phenomenon consisting of the emergence of a new centromere along a chromosome and the inactivation of the old one. After a CR, the primary constriction and the centromeric function are localized in a new position while the order of physical markers on the chromosome remains unchanged. These events profoundly affect chromosomal architecture. Since horses, asses, and zebras, whose evolutionary divergence is relatively recent, show remarkable morphological similarity and capacity to interbreed despite their chromosomes differing considerably, we investigated the role of CR in the karyotype evolution of the genus Equus. Using appropriate panels of BAC clones in FISH experiments, we compared the centromere position and marker order arrangement among orthologous chromosomes of Burchelli's zebra ( Equus burchelli), donkey ( Equus asinus), and horse ( Equus caballus). Surprisingly, at least eight CRs took place during the evolution of this genus. Even more surprisingly, five cases of CR have occurred in the donkey after its divergence from zebra, that is, in a very short evolutionary time (approximately 1 million years).These findings suggest that in some species the CR phenomenon could have played an important role in karyotype shaping, with potential consequences on population dynamics and speciation.

High-ranking mares of captive plains zebra Equus burchelli have greater reproductive success than low-ranking mares

Plains zebra live in harems that include one to six adult mares. Between these mares is a strong order of social hierarchy. The social rank of an equid mare is typically correlated with her age. Further, high-ranking captive plains zebra mares produce more surviving offspring than low-ranking mares. The objectives of this study were to, first, examined the factors that influence social rank of captive plains zebra mares, and second, test if high-ranking mares conceive earlier and if they have shorter inter-birth intervals than low-ranking ones. We observed three herds of captive plains zebra (a total of 18 mares) at the Dvůr Králové Zoo, Czech Republic. During the 831 h of observation, we recorded 1713 aggressive interactions (biting and offensive kicking) between the mares. These data were used to determine, for each mare, the total number of mares that dominated her in each period of social stability. The GLMM model revealed that older mares were dominated by a lower number of mares than the younger mares. We also found that the probability that a mare would conceive declined with the increasing number of dominant mares. Further, we tested the relationship between the number of dominant mares and the inter-birth interval using 29 intervals for 15 mares. These inter-birth intervals were divided into two groups. When a stallion was continuously present in the herd, the intervals lasted from one birth to the next birth (natural intervals). When a herd was without a stallion, the intervals lasted from the release of the stallion into the herd to the birth of foal (stallion-influenced intervals). The analysis revealed that the inter-birth intervals decreased with an increasing number of dominant mares and the natural intervals decreased with an increasing number of offspring successfully reared by a mare. This finding is the first one in equids and contributes to the previous findings that suggest that social status influences reproductive success.

Screening for Tannin Degradation by Rumen and Faecal Samples of Wild and Domestic Animals in Ethiopia

Tannins limit the use of fodder trees as feed for ruminants. Removal of the effects of tannins would thus improve the nutritional quality of these trees. This prompted the study to evaluate the effect of rumen or faecal mixed cultures from different animals on tannin degradation. Tannin extracts, tannic acid and gallic acid were used to enrich media to assess if rumen or faecal mixed cultures could degrade the phenolic compounds. Rumen fluid of Acacia-adapted sheep, sheep fed on wheat bran, bush duikers (Sylvicapra grimmia) and goats fed on Leucaena pallida and Sesbania goetzei were separately inoculated into Growth Study Medium (GSM) and incubated for 5-15 days. Faecal samples from dikdik (Madoqua guentheri), camel (Camelus dromedarius), zebra (Equus quagga), Grant’s gazelle (Gazella granti) and hartebeest (Alcelaphus buselaphus) were also separately inoculated into GSM media and incubated from 3-5 days. TLC results showed that mixed cultures from rumen fluids of Acacia-adapted sheep, sheep on wheat bran, goats on Leucaena pallida and Sesbania goetzei partially hydrolysed tannic acid to pyrogallol. Complete degradation of the heterocyclic ring in tannic acid and gallic acid was achieved by the mixed cultures from the faecal samples of dikdik and this was confirmed by HPLC. Mixed cultures from faecal samples of camel hydrolysed gallic acid to phloroglucinol. This study has demonstrated that faecal microorganisms of Ethiopian dikdik could completely degrade hydrolysable tannin.

Termitaria are focal feeding sites for large ungulates in Lake Mburo National Park, Uganda

AbstractIn constructing large vegetated mounds, Macrotermes termites play a key functional role in many African savanna systems. This study focuses on ungulate feeding on Macrotermes termitaria vegetation in Lake Mburo National Park, Uganda. With the exception of oribi Ourebia ourebi, all the species studied (i.e. impala Aepyceros melampus, Burchell's zebra Equus burchelli, Defassa waterbuck Kobus ellipsiprymnus, topi Damaliscus lunatus, bushbuck Tragelaphus scriptus and warthog Phacochoerus africanus) grazed preferentially on mound areas compared to the adjacent savanna. Ruminant species grazed closer to termitaria than non‐ruminants and female impala both browsed and grazed closer to mounds than males. No sexual difference in grazing distance to mounds was found for waterbuck.

A rapid loss of stripes: the evolutionary history of the extinct quagga

Twenty years ago, the field of ancient DNA was launched with the publication of two short mitochondrial (mt) DNA sequences from a single quagga (Equus quagga) museum skin, an extinct South African equid (Higuchi et al. 1984 Nature312, 282-284). This was the first extinct species from which genetic information was retrieved. The DNA sequences of the quagga showed that it was more closely related to zebras than to horses. However, quagga evolutionary history is far from clear. We have isolated DNA from eight quaggas and a plains zebra (subspecies or phenotype Equus burchelli burchelli). We show that the quagga displayed little genetic diversity and very recently diverged from the plains zebra, probably during the penultimate glacial maximum. This emphasizes the importance of Pleistocene climate changes for phylogeographic patterns in African as well as Holarctic fauna.

Chemical immobilization of Grant's Zebra Equus burchelli boehmi for examination and treatment of lameness

Chemical immobilization of Grant's Zebra Equus burchelli boehmi for examination and treatment of lameness

Differentiation of Cylicocyclus gyalocephaloides of Equus burchelli from Cylicocyclus insigne of Equus caballus (Strongyloidea: Nematoda)

Abstract Specimens of Cylicocyclus insigne (Boulenger, 1917) from Equus caballus and Cylicocyclus gyalocephaloides Ortlepp, 1938 from Equus burchelli were studied to determine whether they should be recognized as separate species. Both are relatively large species with broader than deep buccal capsules with thick, concave walls and a distinct basal external ring; a large esophageal funnel without a thick cuticular lining; and an excretory pore and cervical papillae at or near the junction of the esophagus and intestine. Although the specimens of C. gyalocephaloides are as long or longer than C. insigne, the former have a longer esophagus, males have shorter spicules and a longer gubernaculum, and females have a shorter vagina. In addition, the dorsal papillae of the genital cone of C. gyalocephaloides are more slender than those of C. insigne and bilateral spines present on the genital cones of C. insigne were not found on the available specimens of C. gyalocephaloides. It was concluded that sufficient mo...

ANTIBODIES AGAINST EQUINE HERPESVIRUSES AND EQUINE ARTERITIS VIRUS IN BURCHELL'S ZEBRAS (EQUUS BURCHELLI) FROM THE SERENGETI ECOSYSTEM

A total of 51 sera from a migratory population of Burchell's zebras (Equus burchelli) were collected in the Serengeti National Park (Tanzania) between 1999 and 2001 to assess levels of exposure to equine herpesvirus types 1, 2, 4, 9 (EHV-1, -2, -4, -9), EHV-1 zebra isolate T965, and equine arteritis virus (EAV). Using virus-specific neutralizing antibody tests, seroprevalence was high for EHV-9 (60% of 45), moderate for EAV (24% of 51), and lower for the EHV-1-related zebra isolate (17% of 41), EHV-1 (14% of 49), and EHV-4 (2% of 50). No evidence for exposure to EHV-2 was found (0% of 51). The high level of exposure to EHV-9 is interesting because evidence of infection with this virus has not been previously described in any wild equine population. Although the epidemiology of EHV-9 in Burchell's zebras is presently unknown, our results suggest that in East Africa, this species may be a natural host of EHV-9, a neuropathogenic virus that was only recently isolated from captive Thomson's gazelles (Gazella thomsoni) in Japan. There is currently no evidence that EHV-9 induced mortality in Burchell's zebras in the Serengeti, but because of the reported virulence of this virus for more susceptible species such as Thomson's gazelles, viral transmission from infected zebras to ungulates may result in mortality.

Isolation and characterization of tannin-degrading bacteria from faecal samples of some wild ruminants in Ethiopia

The aim of this study was to isolate and characterize bacteria capable of hydrolysing tannins from the faeces of Ethiopian ruminants adapted to feed on tannin-rich leaves. Faecal samples were collected from dikdik ( Madoqua guentheri), camel ( Camelus dromedaries), Grant's gazelle ( Gazella granti), zebra ( Equus quagga) and hartebeest ( Alcelaphus buselaphus). Mixed cultures of the samples were screened for their tannin-hydrolysing capacities by thin layer chromatography (TLC). Twelve bacterial isolates with the ability to hydrolyse tannin were characterized morphologically, physiologically and by restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) of the 16S rRNA genes of the isolates. Isolate Eden Ephraim 9 (EE9) completely degraded tannic acid, gallic acid and chestnut tannin. The other isolates could hydrolyse tannin to pyrogallol. Characterization of EE9 shows that the isolate is different from previously isolated tannin-tolerant bacteria. The bacteria isolated from some Ethiopian ruminants could partially or completely hydrolyse tannins and EE9 is possibly a new isolate, which may warrant further taxonomic studies. This study has shown the presence of bacteria in faecal materials of ruminants that can completely degrade tannin and which may be used to alleviate tannin toxicity problems in ruminants feeding on tannin-rich but nutritious fodder tree leaves.

Spotted hyenas (Crocuta crocuta) follow migratory prey. Seasonal expansion of a clan territory in Etosha, Namibia

AbstractThe spatial organization of one clan of spotted hyenas Crocuta crocuta in the centre of the Etosha National Park, Namibia, is described during the dry and the wet seasons. The clan comprised 11 adults and sub‐adults and occupied a territory of 160 km2 in the dry season and 320 km2 in the wet season. The dry season territory contained a low density (one animal/km2) of resident herbivores, such as gemsbok Oryx gazella, kudu Tragelaphus strepsiceros, giraffe Giraffa camelopardis, steenbok Raphicerus campestris and ostrich Struthio camelus, and a higher density of migratory species (12 animals/km2), principally springbok Antidorcas marsupialis, zebra Equus burchelli and wildebeest Connochaetes taurinus. These migratory species were the main prey of clan members. At the start of the wet season, the migratory herbivores migrated to the north‐west, resulting in a considerable decline in the density of prey in the area used by clan members during the dry season. In response to this decline in prey, clan members followed the migratory herds and shifted the focus of their activities to an area grazed by migratory herbivores during the wet season. There existed a strong spatial relationship between the hyena density and the migratory prey density in both the dry and wet season. We postulate that the considerable enlargement of the clan territory in the wet season is a response to both the migratory movements of prey and an increase in the dispersion of prey during the wet season.

Polymorphisms of the equine major histocompatibility complex class II DRA locus.

The full extent of the polymorphism of ELA-DRA in Equidae is not yet known. Given the apparent differences in DRA polymorphisms between Equidae and other species, the aims of this study were to more fully characterize ELA-DRA, determine the extent of gene polymorphism and establish the allele-frequency distribution. An allele reference panel for the second exon of ELA-DRA was established by sequence-based typing of 69 equine DNA samples consisting of various breeds of domestic horse (Equus caballus), together with donkeys (Equus asinus), Grant's zebras (Equus boehmi) and one onager (Equus hemionus). Five of the six previously reported alleles detected using single-strand conformation polymorphism were found: ELA-DRA*0101, ELA-DRA*0201, ELA-DRA*0301, ELA-DRA*0501 (Albright-Fraser DG et al. Polymorphism of DRA among equids. Immunogenetics 1996: 43: 315-7) and ELA-DRA*0601 (GenBank accession number AF5419361). In addition to the previously reported alleles, five novel ELA-DRA alleles were detected within the ELA-DRA allele reference panel. One of these was identified in E. caballus (ELA-DRA*JBH11), one in E. boehmi and E. hemionus (ELA-DRA*JBZ185) and three in E. asinus (ELA-DRA*JBD3, ELA-DRA*JBD17 and ELA-DRA*JBH45). A total of 565 equine DNA samples were screened using reference-strand-mediated conformation analysis, a double-stranded conformation-based mutation detection system that can be used to type existing ELA-DRA alleles and identify new variants. Based on our findings, at least 11 ELA-DRA alleles are now known to exist, and this level of polymorphism at the DRA locus appears to be unique to the genus Equus. Both the previously reported alleles and the new alleles displayed a species-specific distribution.

The Last Mile: How to Sustain Long‐Distance Migration in Mammals

Abstract: Among Earth's most stunning, yet imperiled, biological phenomena is long‐distance migration (LDM). Although the understanding of how and why animals migrate may be of general interest, few site‐specific strategies have targeted ways in which to best retain such increasingly rare events. Contrasts among 29 terrestrial mammals from five continents representing 103 populations indicate that remnant long‐distant migrants have poor long‐term prospects. Nonetheless, in areas of low human density in the Western Hemisphere, five social and nongregarious species, all from the same region of the Rocky Mountains (U.S.A.), still experience the most accentuated of remaining New World LDMs south of central Canada. These movements occur in or adjacent to the Greater Yellowstone region, where about 75% of the migration routes for elk (Cervus elaphus), bison ( Bison bison), and North America's sole surviving endemic ungulate, pronghorn (Antilocapra americana), have already been lost. However, pronghorn still migrate up to 550 km (round‐trip) annually. These extreme movements (1) necessitate use of historic, exceptionally narrow corridors (0.1–0.8 km wide) that have existed for at least 5800 years, (2) exceed travel distances of elephants ( Loxodonta africana) and zebras ( Equus burchelli), and (3) are on par with those of Asian chiru ( Pantholops hodgsoni) and African wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus). Although conservation planners face uncertainty in situating reserves in the most biologically valued locations, the concordance between archaeological and current biological data on migration through specific corridors in these unprotected areas adjacent to the Yellowstone system highlights their retention value. It is highly likely that accelerated leasing of public lands for energy development in such regions will truncate such migrations. One landscape‐level solution to conserving LDMs is the creation of a network of national migration corridors, an action in the Yellowstone region that would result in de facto protection for a multispecies complex. Tactics applied in this part of the world may not work in others, however, therefore reinforcing the value of site‐specific field information on the past and current biological needs of migratory species.

New investigations on the taxonomy of the zebras genus Equus, subgenus Hippotigris

Summary Species and subspecies of zebras are examined using traditional (pelage and craniometric) taxonomic methods, including multivariate analysis. Mountain Zebras are split into two species, Equus zebra and Equus hartmannae, because they differ absolutely (100%); Burchell's or plains zebras, however, are placed in Equus quagga because there are no absolute differences. The subspecies of Equus quagga are revised; six subspecies are recognisable. E.zebra, E.hartmannae and E.grevyi are monotypic.

A comparative study of gastrointestinal parasites between ranched and free ranging Burchell's zebra (Equus burchelli antiquorum) in Isiolo district, Kenya

Parasites were collected from 20 Burchell's zebra, Equus burchelli antiquorum, from Isiolo district, Kenya. 10 were ranched animals from the Lewa Downs Ranch and 10 free ranging from the areas adjacent to the ranch to the north. The animals were culled from 4th to 18th June 1995. The gastrointestinal tract was removed from the carcass and separated as stomach, small and large intestines and searched for parasites. The abdominal cavity was scrutinized for Setaria species. The parasites were identified to genus and in some cases species level. All animals were infected with at least three genera of parasites of which at least one genus was a nematode. A total of 10 genera representing eight families were recovered from the two groups. These included six nematode families, Strongylidae, Atractidae, Oxyuridae, Spiruridae, Setariidae, and Ascaridae, one cestode family, Anoplocephalidae and one family of the larvae of Gasterophilus bot flies, Gasterophilidae. The most prevalent families were Atractidae (100%) and Gasterophilidae (100%). The principle nematode genera was Crossocephalus whose total burden, plus or minus the standard deviation, was 3,471,129 +/- 1,352,922. Setaria species were recovered from the abdominal cavity of 45% of all the animals examined. The overall total worm burden was higher in the free ranging zebra 2,743,410 +/- 849,604 than the ranched zebra, 787,669 +/- 246,006. The range of individual genera varied from 0 to 269,225 in the free ranging group, which was higher than 0 to 77,890 in the ranched animals. From statistical analysis, no significant difference could be found between males and females. However, the burdens of genera Strongylus, Triodontophorus, Crossocephalus and Parascaris were significantly higher in free ranging animals.

Antibodies to Neospora caninum in wild animals from Kenya, East Africa

The prevalence of antibodies to Neospora caninum was examined in six wild Artiodactyla species, and in five wild Carnivora species from Kenya. Blood sera (104 wild ungulates from Marula Estates (MEs), and 31 wild carnivores from Masai-Mara reserve and from other wildlife areas in northern and Southern Kenya), were screened using a Neospora agglutination test (NAT), with a twofold dilution (1:40–1:320 titres). Presence of NAT antibodies to N. caninun is reported here for the first time in zebra ( Equus burchelli), eland ( Taurotragus oryx), African buffalo ( Syncerus caffer), Thompson gazelle ( Gazella thompsoni), impala ( Aepyceros melampus), warthog ( Phacochoerus aethiopicus), spotted hyena ( Crocuta crocuta) and in free-ranging cheetah ( Acinonyx jubatus). At 1:80 dilution, prevalence was 61.5% in eland, 58.5% in zebra, 19.2% in Thompson gazelle, 33.3% in warthog, 50% in African buffalo, 30% in lion ( Panthera leo), 20% in cheetah, and 33.3% in spotted hyena. Antibodies up to 1:320 titre were detected in eland (38.4%), zebra (19.5%), Thompson gazelle (3.8%) and lion (5%). Amongst herbivores, sero-prevalence was significantly ( P<0.05) higher, at all dilutions, in “grazer/digger” species (e.g. eland and zebra) than in non-“grazer/digger” species (e.g. impala and Thompson gazelle). No antibodies to N. caninum were found in two leopards ( Panthera pardus) and one serval ( Felis serval). Our results indicates a steady presence of N. caninum in wild mammals from Kenya. The hypothesis of a sylvatic cycle of N. caninum could be suggested, but more data are needed to verify the hypothesis, as to evaluate the role of N. caninum infection on the dynamics of wild animals population in the study area.

Phylogenetic analysis of the microbial populations in the wild herbivore gastrointestinal tract: insights into an unexplored niche.

At present, there is little information on the phylogenetic diversity of microbial species that inhabit the gastrointestinal tracts of wildlife. To increase understanding in this area, we initiated a characterization of the bacterial diversity in the digestive tracts of three wild African ruminant species namely eland (Taurotragus oryx), Thompson's gazelle (Gazella rufifrons) and Grant's gazelle (Gazella granti), together with a domesticated ruminant species, zebu cattle (Bos indicus), and a non-ruminant species, zebra (Equus quagga). Bacterial diversity was analysed by PCR amplification, sequencing and phylogenetic analysis of 16S ribosomal DNA (rDNA) sequences. A total of 252 full-length 16S rDNA sequences averaging 1,500 base pairs (bp) in length, and an additional 27 partial sequences were obtained and subject to phylogenetic analysis. Using a 98% criterion for similarity, all except for one of the sequences were derived from distinct phylotypes. At least 24 distinct operational taxonomic units (OTU's) could be identified, with the majority of these sequences representing hitherto uncharacterized species and genera. The sequences were generally affiliated with four major bacterial phyla, the majority being members of the Firmicutes (low G+C Gram-positives) related to the genera Clostridium and Ruminococcus. By contrast, with earlier studies using 16S rDNA sequences to assess biodiversity in Bos taurus dairy cattle, Gram-negative bacteria in the Bacteroidales (Prevotella-Bacteroides group) were poorly represented. The lack of redundancy in the 16S rDNA dataset from the five African ungulate species, and the presence of novel sequences not previously described from the gastrointestinal tract of any animal species, highlights the level of diversity that exists in these ecosystems and raises the question as to the functional role of these species in the gastrointestinal tract.

Acute confusional state in the emergency department: consider a common zebra

Acute confusional states represent neurologic emergencies with broad differential diagnoses, including toxic ingestions, subarachnoid hemorrhage, stroke, encephalitis, and confusional migraine. Particularly in the adolescent period and in children with Lennox-Gastaut, nonconvulsive status epilepticus is a relatively uncommon but well-described clinical entity. Clinical hallmarks include a dazed affect, limited or monosyllabic verbal responses, difficulty following commands, occasional automatisms, but normal vital signs and no tonic clonic movements. Nonconvulsive status epilepticus encompasses absence status epilepticus as well as other forms of status epilepticus. Clinical recognition of absence status epilepticus in the emergency department can be difficult, but early confirmation can promote early resolution, prevent unwarranted investigation, and avoid unnecessary treatment for unrelated conditions. We discuss 2 cases of absence status, with a review of the literature and a proposed algorithm for acute confusional state.