Placement Test Research Articles

Fostering EFL learners' motivation, anxiety, and self-efficacy through computer-assisted language learning- and mobile-assisted language learning-based instructions.

In the literature, a mass of studies have inspected the effects of computer-assisted language learning (CALL) and mobile-assisted language learning (MALL) on Iranian English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners’ achievement. However, the effects of CALL and MALL on psychological factors, such as motivation, anxiety, and self-efficacy, have largely remained unexplored. Thus, this study explored the effects of CALL and MALL, and face-to-face (FTF) learning environments on Iranian EFL learners’ motivation, anxiety, and self-efficacy. To this aim, using a random sampling method, a total of 137 male EFL intermediate learners were selected and homogenized using the Oxford Quick Placement Test (OQPT). Based on the test scores, a total of 90 EFL learners were selected and randomly assigned to three groups, namely, CALL (n = 30), MALL (n = 30), and FTF (n = 30). Then, the participants’ motivation, anxiety, and self-efficacy were gauged prior to the instructions. Afterward, they received CALL-based, MALL-based, and conventional instructions which lasted 25 1-h sessions held twice a week. At the end of the instructions, the participants’ motivation, anxiety, and self-efficacy were measured again. The collected data were analyzed through a one-way MANOVA. Findings evidenced that the experimental groups’ motivation, anxiety, and self-efficacy were positively affected by the CALL-based and MALL-based instructions. However, there was not a statistically significant difference between the CALL group and MALL group concerning the gains of motivation, anxiety, and self-efficacy. In light of the findings, a range of implications is suggested for relevant stakeholders.

Global temporal typing patterns in foreign language writing: exploring language proficiency through recurrence quantification analysis (RQA)

Recurrence quantification analysis (RQA) is a time-series analysis method that uses autocorrelation properties of typing data to detect regularities within the writing process. The following paper first gives a detailed introduction to RQA and its application to time series data. We then apply RQA to keystroke logging data of first and foreign language writing to illustrate how outcome measures of RQA can be understood as skill-driven constraints on keyboard typing performance. Forty native German students performed two prompted writing assignments, one in German and one in English, a standardized copy task, and a standardized English placement test. We assumed more fluent and skilled writing to reveal more structured typing time series patterns. Accordingly, we expected writing in a well-mastered first language to coincide with higher values in relevant RQA measures as compared to writing in a foreign language. Results of mixed model ANOVAs confirmed our hypothesis. We further observed that RQA measures tend to be higher, thus indicating more structured data, whenever parameters of pause, burst, and revision analyses indicate more fluent writing. Multiple regression analyses revealed that, in addition to typing skills, language proficiency significantly predicts outcomes of RQA. Thus, the present data emphasize RQA being a valuable resource for studying time series data that yields meaningful information about the effort a writer must exert during text production.

Cultural Resources, Listening Comprehension of Intermediate Iranian EFL Learners and their Emotional Intelligence

The notion of emotional intelligence (EQ or EI) was provided to complement general intelligence. This study intended to study the influence of emotional intelligence on listening comprehension of junior high school EFL learners from both genders when using culture-based materials. In so doing, a number of 50 Iranian intermediate level EFL learners were selected using the Oxford Quick Placement Test (OQPT). In addition, Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire was employed. The listening test was administered first. Participants were classified into an experimental and a control group. In the experimental group, students were exposed to listening materials such as special expressions, idioms, and conversations. After ten sessions, participants participated in the listening post-test. The results of an independent samples t-test showed that the performance of the participants in the two groups was significantly different. Moreover, one-way ANOVA and post-hoc analysis revealed that gender significantly affects the listening skills of EFL learners with varying degrees of emotional intelligence when using cultural material in listening lessons. The findings of this study can lead language teachers to include materials as listening pieces about cultural entities to improve the listening ability of language learners.

Prediction of Iranian EFL Learners' Reading Comprehension Ability by Critical Thinking, Intelligence, and Language Aptitude

Critical thinking, intelligence, and language aptitude are three cognitive factors, each, in its own way, influencing our lives. They are important in successful reasoning, problem-solving, and foreign language learning, and thus are worth studying regarding their influence on individuals’ language-related skills, in particular, foreign language-related skills. This study used a correlational design to investigate how well the set of variables of critical thinking, intelligence, and language aptitude can predict Iranian EFL learners' reading comprehension ability, and to see which variable in this set was the best predictor. Additionally, the study explored whether the set could predict these learners' reading comprehension ability differently depending on their language proficiency. Fifty-seven university students majoring in English took part in this study. They were 6th and 7th-semester undergraduate students at the University of Sistan and Baluchestan, and Farhangian University of Zahedan, Iran. The data were collected through an Oxford Placement Test, a Watson-Glaser Appraisal, the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Revised, The Colleges of Oxford University Classics Language Aptitude Test, and the reading comprehension section of a Michigan language proficiency test. Statistical analysis revealed that critical thinking, intelligence, and language aptitude allowed us to predict the participants’ reading comprehension ability by as much as 83%. Language aptitude, with a unique contribution of 63% was the best predictor of the three. The results also showed that the predictive difference between the participants with high language proficiency and that of participants with low language proficiency was not statistically significant. The study suggests some pedagogical implications related to activities that can be incorporated into EFL reading comprehension-related materials and when determining the difficulty of EFL reading comprehension tests.

Meaning-Focused Output and Meaning-Focused Input Instruction and Willingness to Communicate: Effects and Perceptions

The present study sought to investigate the effects of meaning-focused input (MFI) and meaning-focused output (MFO) activities on willingness to communicate (WTC) of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners. The study aimed at exploring learners' perceptions towards the efficacy of MFO and MFI activities for developing WTC. The participants of study were 70 learners homogenized via an Oxford Placement Test, who were then randomly divided into two groups of 35. The WTC questionnaire, adopted from MacIntyre et al. (2001), was used both as pretest and posttest, and a semi-structured interview was used to probe participants’ perceptions towards MFI and MFO. The first experimental group received MFO activities and were given a reading text and asked to present a summary in spoken form based on the notes they took during the reading. In experimental group two, the reading activities were administered in an input mode. The learners were asked to read the texts and answer some reading comprehension questions. The results of statistical analyses indicated that the MFO group outperformed the MFI group for WTC. The content analysis of the interview also revealed students receiving MFO had more positive perception and found it more useful in enhancing WTC than those receiving MFI. Pedagogical implications are offered to teachers and material developers.

The effect of the model of contingent teaching on improving Iranian EFL learners’ essay writing

Regarding the three main features of scaffolding, namely, contingency, fading, and the transfer of responsibility, contingency entails the assistance adjusted to a learner’s existing level of understanding. The present study investigated the effect of the model of contingent teaching on improving Iranian English as a foreign language (EFL) learners’ overall writing performance (opinion essays), and in terms of writing components; namely, task response, coherence and cohesion, lexical resource, and grammatical range and accuracy. Moreover, the study aimed at investigating which component was mostly affected by the model. Based on convenience sampling, 60 female EFL learners of English in a language school between the ages of 20 and 30 were chosen from four intact classes. After conducting the Oxford placement test to ensure the homogeneity of the learners, the participants were then randomly assigned to one of two groups: experimental or control. The findings of the MANCOVA test revealed that the model of contingent teaching fostered EFL learners’ opinion essay writing performance. Besides, the model of contingent teaching improved task response and the lexical resource more significantly. The study offers some practical implications for teacher trainers, teachers, and EFL learners which are discussed.

Investigating the effectiveness of augmented reality-enhanced instruction on EFL learners’ speaking in online flipped and face-to-face classes

Integrating improved technologies such as augmented reality (AR) within flipped classes has gained popularity among scholars. This study was carried out to examine the effect of AR-based instruction on English as a foreign language (EFL) learners’ speaking skills in online flipped and face-to-face classes. To this end, out of 65 students who had enrolled in the designated language program, 50 students were selected by the researcher based on their performance on the Cambridge English Placement test, and the selected participants were randomly assigned into the face-to-face or online flipped groups. For the treatment, both groups received the same AR application, teaching material, and teaching strategies. The only difference between the two groups was the learning context. After the treatment sessions, both the online flipped and face-to-face groups participated in a post-test. According to the results, although all participants’ speaking ability improved at the end of the course, the online flipped group showed a statistically significant difference in their speaking post-test. The obtained results in this study could pave the way for teachers and students to benefit from implementing flipped classes using AR technology.

Construction and Live Load Behavior of a Skewed Steel I-Girder Bridge

As part of a long-term monitoring project, a two-span continuous steel I-girder bridge (skewed 41° with seat-type abutments) was instrumented and evaluated in the field during construction and after the bridge was in service. This paper discusses data from when the first stage (of a three-stage sequence) was constructed and initially opened to traffic. Girders and cross-frames were instrumented with strain gauges using a data acquisition system with a high sampling frequency (up to 20 Hz). Data collection began just before deck placement, and a series of live load tests was then conducted on the completed Stage I (half of the bridge) using a loaded truck. Three-dimensional finite element analyses were carried out to provide enhanced understanding of bridge behavior. Good agreement was observed between the numerical simulation results and the field monitoring data for both deck placement and live load testing. A slight inconsistency between numerical simulation and field measurement data at one girder section and an adjacent cross-frame indicated an unexpected local site condition, which was confirmed through a targeted field inspection. Live load distribution factors used during design conservatively overestimate bridge girder strong-axis bending response under live load (by around 50%). Maximum flange lateral bending stresses of 6.3 MPa (0.9 kips per square inch [ksi]) and 2.5 MPa (0.4 ksi) were observed during deck placement and truck tests, respectively. In addition, out-of-plane response of 10.6 MPa (1.5 ksi) was observed at girder web plates under concrete dead load.

A Single or Separate Entities? A Genre-Based Investigation Into the Correspondence Between L1 and L2 Writing Skills

Reflecting one of the state-of-the-art issues in SLA, this study aimed at inspecting the correspondence between Persian and English writing skills to see whether or not they emerged from a single entity called multi-competence (Cook, 1991, 2016). Besides, the impact of genre on Persian and English writing skills was examined to explore if the skills and their possible source were genre-sensitive or not. In so doing, 50 MA TEFL students, at the intermediate level of language proficiency, were selected through Oxford quick placement test. Each student wrote down four argumentative and descriptive compositions: two in Persian and two in English. Then the compositions were evaluated based on the criteria of IELTS task 2 writing scoring scale. To analyze the obtained data, Pearson product-moment correlations and one-way repeated measures ANOVAs were employed. The findings illustrated that there were significant correlations between Persian and English argumentative and descriptive compositions, which supported the possible existence of the single entity, multi-competence. The findings also displayed that genre affected the participants’ L1 and L2 writing skills, implying that the skills and their source, multi-competence, were possibly influenced by genre. Based on the findings, it is recommended that L1 writing instruction be included in L2 writing courses as they are inter-dependent and can help each other’s amelioration. It is also suggested that a genre-based approach be utilized in L2 writing instruction to enhance the students’ awareness over the building blocks of each genre.

Examining the social consequences of a locally-developed placement test using test takers’ attitudes

Drawing on test takers’ attitudes to evaluate social consequences of testing is a widely recognized practice in the language testing literature. Yet studies using such approaches at the local placement level are few. To address this gap, 92 students from a large midwestern university were surveyed and 26 of these students participated in a follow-up interview. While survey results showed that students were more negative than positive towards the test, students’ accounts revealed a more complex picture. First, regardless of one’s attitudes toward the test, students experienced some lack of test preparation. Second, test-taking experiences were divergent even among students sharing similar perceptions about the test. Third, students sharing more positive views of the test tended to focus on ways that the test tasks represented the target domain, whereas students sharing less favorable views focused on the opposite. While there was no strong evidence of test invalidity, a need to review current test administration practices and ways of communicating test information and preparation materials is recommended. This study demonstrates that studying the attitudes of test takers and the factors contributing to such attitudes is useful not only for test validation purposes but also for establishing positive test quality. • Students did not engage in quality test preparation for the placement test. • Keyboarding and timing issues and test anxiety were variably experienced. • Perceived test task representation varied with students’ attitudes toward the test. • Appraisal analysis is a useful way to evaluate students’ attitudes.

Miniature Pediatric Dental Office Model

Background: Dental fear and anxiety remains the most common emotions experienced by the child who visit the pediatric dentist. The success of pedodontics is determined by the odontologist's capability to gain the confidence and maintain the cooperation of the child. Objective/Aim: The aim of the study was to assess the behavior and anxiety levels of school-going children in a dental setting using a Miniature Pediatric Dental Office Model during the first dental visit of the child. Study Design: This cross-sectional research was carried out in a dental institute in the department of pediatrics and preventive dentistry. The study protocol was explained to the parents of 3–9-year-old children. Demographics were elicited from the parents and their correlation with the placement of the doll in the pediatric dental office model and a modified Frankl's behavior rating scale was used to assess the child's behavior. Results: Of 84 participants, 47 children were under the age of 6 years and 37 children were ≥6 years of age. In the doll placement test, the majority (36.9%) of the children preferred pattern 2 (the child is on the chair, the dentist is inside the operatory, the mother is inside the operatory, and the father is outside the operatory) in the doll placement test, and the least (8.3%) preferred pattern 1 (the child is on the chair, the dentist is inside the operatory, the father is inside the operatory, the mother is outside the operatory). Thirty-four percent children up to the age of 6 years exhibited a mix of negative-positive behavior, and 43.2% of children aged 6 years showed a positive behavior according to the modified Frankl's rating scale. Conclusion: The doll placement test using a miniature pediatric office aided us in determining the child's anxiety level during their first dental visit. To achieve emotional support and avoid the impact of traumatic separation, especially in younger children, our study showed that mothers should be present in the dental office to remove behavior-related problems.

The Effect of the Pamphlet of Study Skill on Iranian Pre-Intermediate EFL Learners’ Writing Skill

The purpose of this study was to consider the effect of the pamphlet of the study skill on writing texts of Iranian Pre-Intermediate EFL students in a private institute in Isfahan. To achieve the intended purpose, an Oxford Placement Test (OPT) was administered to 100 learners in a private English language institute and 60 pre intermediate learners were selected as the participants of the study. They were divided into two groups randomly. The experimental group (30 students) and control group (30 students). Both of the groups were asked to a test as a pre-test and post-test. Afterwards the experimental group was taught a pamphlet about the skills of writing during 20 sessions. Then, the data of the study was statistically analyzed with using SPSS software. The results showed when the students in the experimental group learned the skills of writing a good text, they could write the different kinds of texts. They could organize and develop the paragraphs very well and they could also use appropriate linking words in different types of writing texts.

Relationship between Course Placement Criteria and Mathematics Achievement in an All-Boys Catholic School

This study explored the mathematics course placement process for incoming students in an all-boys Catholic high school. The sequential nature of mathematics significantly impacts students’ opportunity to learn; moreover, the mathematics course taken by a student during ninth grade can have far-reaching effects. Previous studies have found that ninth-grade students enrolled in Geometry, rather than Algebra 1, have a greater chance of completing advanced mathematics courses and experiencing increased mathematics success. Thus, adequately prepared students should be placed in Geometry whenever possible. To aid this effort, this study investigated whether a relationship exists between course placement criteria and future mathematics achievement. The study sample was comprised of students who graduated from the subject high school between 2015 and 2019 (N = 1067). The placement criteria examined were Acuity Algebra Proficiency Test results, High School Placement Test mathematics scores, and eighth-grade teacher recommendations. ACT mathematics scores were used as measures of success; binary logistic regression was utilized to determine strength of association between placement criteria and future mathematics achievement. Results indicate that Acuity test performance is strongly associated with future mathematics achievement, while combinations of placement criteria are more effective than individual course placement measures. Implications for further research are discussed.

The Effects of Definitional, Sentential, and Textual Vocabulary Learning Strategies on Iranian EFL Learners’ Vocabulary Learning and Retention

This research investigated the effect of three definitional, sentential, and textual vocabulary learning strategies on Iranian intermediate EFL learners’ vocabulary learning and retention. Based on Oxford Solutions Placement Test, of 94 total population, 66 Iranian EFL learners were selected as homogeneous participants at the intermediate level from a private English Language Institute in Rasht, Iran. Next, according to the quasi-experimental design, characterized by administration of a pretest, treatment, and a posttest and a delayed posttest, the learners were randomly assigned to two experimental groups of textual (TG), sentential (SG), and one control group of definitional, (DG) each with 22 participants. A familiarity test of vocabulary was administered to certify the learners’ familiarity with the targeted vocabulary items. The groups were pretested on their current knowledge of vocabulary, after which they received a 20-session text-based, sentence-based, and definition-based instructions of vocabulary. In addition, all groups attended the posttest of vocabulary at the end of the treatment sessions. The results of the immediate and delayed posttests analyzed using one-way ANOVA revealed statistically significant differences in the performances of the three groups in favor of TG group that gained and retained higher rates of vocabulary items than did the SG and DG groups although the SG group was more successful. Further findings and implications are discussed in the paper. The findings of the research can be utilized by the teachers, materials developers, and education authorities to provide textual-based vocabulary instruction for Iranian EFL learners.

Using Instagram for Teaching Idioms to Iranian Upper-intermediate EFL Learners

In this study, the efficacy of using Instagram as a smartphone assisting tool on teaching idioms to Iranian upper-intermediate EFL learners was examined. Oxford Placement Test (OPT) was utilized to determine the level of the learner's proficiency. Then, 60 selected participants were divided into two groups namely experimental and control groups. The learners in the experimental group learned idioms through Instagram (pictures, examples, and texts) and the learners in the control group learned them through the traditional method (texts, meaning, and examples). T-test was used to determine the significance of the experimental group improvement in learning idioms compared with the control group. The findings showed that the experimental group learners outperformed the control group learners and the increase in their scores was significant showing that Instagram is a good application for learning idioms. The results of this study might be useful for both EFL students and professors to learn and teach better.

The Effect of Moodle-Integrated Learning Platform on ELT Pre-service Teachers’ General Pedagogical Knowledge

This study aims to determine the effects of Moodle-integrated learning environments on pre-service teachers’ general pedagogical knowledge and performance. The study was conducted using a quasi-experimental research design with eighty-seven teacher candidates. Data from the study was collected via a placement test, a performance test, and three general pedagogical knowledge tests. A one-way between-subjects covariance and a mixed between-within-subjects analysis of variance were used to analyze the descriptive data statistics. The initial findings indicated no significant difference between the groups’ placement test scores prior to the Moodle integrated learning platform support. The performance test, administered after the intervention, indicated that students in the experimental group significantly outperformed students in the control group. The results also highlighted that Moodle effectively prepared students for learning by building general pedagogical knowledge.

Collaborative Writing on Google Docs: Effects on EFL Learners’ Descriptive Paragraphs

Google Docs has recently been suggested as an efficient collaborative tool for group writing. This experimental quantitative study, including pretest-treatment-posttest design, aimed at comparing the effects of collaborative writing on Google Docs and individual writing practice on EFL learners’ descriptive paragraphs. The participants were 48 Turkish EFL learners at pre-intermediate level of proficiency, based on their performance on Oxford Placement Test. The participants were assigned to two groups. One group, including 24 participants, experienced collaborative writing on Google Docs plus researchers’ comments as feedback (CWGD group). The other group, including 24 participants, experienced individual writing practice plus researcher’s direct corrective feedback (IWP group). The results of the independent samples t-test indicated that the CWGD group significantly outperformed the IWP group. In conclusion, collaborative writing Google Docs environment can enhance the writing skill of the EFL learners. Therefore, the study highly recommends utilizing collaborative writing on Google Docs to practice English language writing skill.

An investigation of the relationship between argument structure and essay quality in assessed writing

This study investigates the characteristics of argumentation in essay performances on a second language (L2) writing test. Inspired by Toulmin’s ([1958] 2003) model of argumentation and research on evaluating the soundness of arguments (Means & Voss, 1996; Schwarz, Neuman, Gil, & Ilya, 2003), we examined argument structure and quality in 150 argumentative essays of different levels on an integrated English-as-a-second-language (ESL) writing placement test at a US university. The essays were coded using Toulmin’s elements, scored on a Likert scale in terms of argument relevance and acceptability, and compared via multivariate analysis of variance. Results show that both argument structure and quality are associated with differences in writing proficiency. However, in terms of argument structure, the presence of individual Toulmin’s elements alone does not predict proficiency level. Instead, it is the structural complexity, i.e., co-occurrence of multiple structural elements, that reflects the proficiency differences. The findings of this study help disentangle the nature of argumentation across proficiency levels, offering both insights over L2 writing development and validity evidence for L2 writing assessments. Additionally, this study has methodological implications for L2 writing assessment research, suggesting the added value of incorporating fine-grained measures of argumentation in scale development and validation.

Towards a Sustainable Multidimensional Approach to English Proficiency Proof in the Post-Pandemic Era: Learning from the Legacy of COVID-19

The COVID-19 pandemic has created unprecedented impacts on higher education, particularly on the admission of international applicants required to submit English proficiency proof (EPP). To learn from the legacy of COVID-19, this study examines 77 top-ranking higher education institutions’ (HEI) changing practices regarding EPP across two application rounds in 2020 and 2021. Given that HEIs function as test users in the admission process, we adopted the construct of test utilisation to inform data analysis. Findings suggest a trend of HEIs embracing newly emerging at-home online tests and combining traditional standardised tests with other options, such as online interviews and/or inhouse placement or diagnostic tests; such approaches extended the enrolment timeline. Thus, the study demonstrates the enriched scope of test utilisation and proposes a sustainable multidimensional approach to EPP for higher-education admissions in the postpandemic era featuring digital and temporal elements. Practical implications for university admissions are also discussed.

An Investigation of EFL Learners’ Vocabulary Retention and Recall in a Technology-Based Instructional Environment: Focusing on Digital Games

Using digital games in language learning is beneficial, but their effectiveness in the Bangladeshi EFL context has been overlooked. Therefore, the purpose of this research was to evaluate the impact of playing digital games on Bangladeshi EFL learners’ ability to remember and retain the language. The Oxford Quick Placement Test was given to 78 Bangladeshi English as foreign language students. Based on the findings, 50 primary school pupils were selected based on the convenient sampling method as the study’s target group for further investigation. Afterward, they were separated into two groups: one for the experiment and another for the CG. After that, all subjects were subjected to pretesting, and then, the therapy was administered. The EG was educated by the researcher via the use of digital games. The participants in the EG were taught English vocabulary via the use of a computerized game, which they found entertaining. On the other hand, the students of the CG received a traditional vocabulary teaching. After teaching 90 vocabulary in nine sessions, an immediate vocabulary posttest was conducted on both groups to determine the treatment’s possible effects on their vocabulary recall. Three weeks later, a delayed posttest was given to the participants to examine the effect of digital games on their vocabulary retention. The results of paired samples and independent sample t -tests showed that there was a significant difference between the immediate and delayed posttests of the EG and CGs in favor of the EG. The EG outperformed the CG both on the immediate and delayed posttests. This study has some implications for teaching and learning vocabulary.